Russian Revolution Lecture Notes

The 1905 Revolution

• Political Landscape: Russia remained politically stuck in the 18th century until 1905 due to its absolutist structure.
• Economic Modernization: Russia began to modernize economically, largely due to Sergei Witte.
  • Witte was the Finance Minister from 1892-1903.
  • He put the Russian ruble on the gold standard, aligning it with top world currencies like the Pound, Dollar, and French Franc.
  • Increased taxes for peasants and workers.
  • Introduced tariffs on imports.
  • Relied heavily on foreign direct investment through loans.
  • Invested in industry and railways.
  • Russia had to pay higher interest rates on loans, incentivizing lending from major powers.
  • Coal production tripled between 1890 and 1900.
  • Iron ore production increased 3.5 times.

Social Changes

• Working Class: By 1897, the working class comprised 14 million people, about 12% of the population.
  • Over half worked in factories in large cities.
  • They faced terrible working conditions, including low pay, long hours, and no trade unions.
  • The increase in the working class posed a challenge to the regime due to feelings of unfair treatment.
• Peasants: They had their own grievances.
  • They resented the burden of taxes.
  • Demanded direct ownership of land, elimination of redemption payments, fairer tax systems, and the right to vote.
  • Poor harvests encouraged revolution.
• Nobility: They were unhappy with relinquishing control of about 1/3 of their land due to emancipation.
• Middle Class: They disliked being shut out of power.
  • They wanted a constitution and free press.
  • They preferred to join the system and exclude workers.

Reasons for Rebellion - Short Term Causes

• Trade recession began in 1899, increasing unemployment and illegal strikes.
• Increased rural population led to ‘land hunger’.
• Between 1877 and 1905, the rural population increased by 1/4, while the average size of peasant land holdings decreased by 20%.
• The percentage of the population working in agriculture decreased from 74% to 72% between 1880 and 1913.
• Bad harvests around 1901 led to higher food prices and inflation.

Nationalism

• The Russian Empire was multicultural, but many groups wanted independence.
• The regime pursued Russification, discriminating against non-Russian groups.
  • The Jewish population was forced to live in the Pale of Settlement.
  • Taxes and attacks (pogroms) against Jewish people were enforced.

Russo-Japanese War

• The war in 1904 occurred over territorial disputes regarding Korea and Manchuria.
• It was a source of national humiliation for Russia.
• Much of Russia's navy was sunk in the Battle of Tsushima in 1905.
• This made the government appear incompetent and strengthened public fury.

Political Developments

• July 1904: Mirsky became Interior Minister after Plehve's assassination.
  • Mirsky allowed a meeting of the Zemstva (village council) in November in St. Petersburg.
    • 40% of its members were directly elected (peasants), but it was mostly dominated by local nobles.
  • The council demanded a constitution.
• Early 1905: Harsh winter conditions led to illegal strikes.
  • The first strike occurred at the Putilov Armaments Factory, calling for food and political reform.

Bloody Sunday

• January 22, 1905: Bloody Sunday occurred, led by Father Gapon.
  • Peaceful protestors marched to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to petition the Tsar for reforms.
  • Imperial forces opened fire on the protestors, resulting in over 200 deaths, 800 injuries, and nearly 7000 arrests.
• News of the massacre spread across Russia, leading to anarchy over the next 12 months.

Reforms

• February 18, 1905: Tsar Nicholas asked the public for suggestions for reform, including the establishment of an advisory assembly.
• Liberal groups formed the ‘Union of Unions’.
• August 27: Minister of Labour Alexander Trepov granted universities autonomy, leading to increased protests.
• October 13: The St. Petersburg Soviet was established, led by Menshevik Trotsky.
  • In December 1905, the Soviet was broken up and Trotsky was imprisoned.
• An Electoral Law was passed, artificially favoring the aristocracy.

October Manifesto

• October 17: Nicholas published the October Manifesto.
  • An attempt to appease the opposition by seemingly agreeing to many demands.
  • Included freedom of press, speech, conscience, no arbitrary arrests, and formation of political parties.
  • Established a national assembly (Duma), with the first meeting in 1906 (4 Dumas before 1914).
  • No reforms for workers, isolating them.
• February 1906: The Tsar declared the State Council would become the Second Chamber, with veto power over the Duma.
  • The Second Chamber had 189 members, all appointed by the Tsar.
• The regime obtained a large loan from France in 1906, reducing dependence on the Duma for approving taxes.

Fundamental Laws

• April 23, 1906: The Fundamental Laws were published, stating:
  • The Tsar could veto any law.
  • The Tsar could close the Duma at will.
  • The Tsar could issue laws by decree when the Duma was not in session.
  • The Tsar had total control over foreign policy.

Regime Stability by 1914

• Peter Stolypin became Prime Minister in 1906 and remained until his death in 1911.
• Stolypin implemented a combination of repressions and concessions.
• Many ringleaders of the 1905 Revolution were executed in the period known as ‘Stolypin’s Necktie’.

Stolypin’s Reforms

• Peasants:
  • Eliminated redemption payments.
  • Aimed to consolidate peasant strips of land into large farms.
  • Created a new rich class of super-peasants known as ‘kulaks’.
  • Encouraged innovation with new fertilizer and technology.
  • The Peasants Land Bank provided loans to turn leaseholds into freeholds.
  • The policy was not given sufficient financial support or time.
  • Abandoned after Stolypin's assassination.
• Workers:
  • Happy that trade unions were legalized and socialist political parties were formed.
  • Limited in reality due to the state’s ability to call upon the military.

Lena Goldfields Massacre

• April 17, 1912: The workers carried out a strike demanding an 8-hour workday, a 30% increase in wages, and better food.
  • Military troops were sent in to arrest strike committee members.
  • 270 were killed and 250 wounded.
  • In April 1912, there were 700 strikes across the country.
  • 14000 strikes took place across 1905.
  • 1918 strikes in 1912, many triggered by the massacre.
• Middle Class:
  • Generally satisfied with reforms, particularly forming political parties.
  • Unhappy with the Fundamental Laws because the Dumas lacked real power.
  • Nicholas' impatience led to frequent shutdowns.
  • Duma created the illusion of political stability to attract loans.
  • The last Duma was from 1912-1917, continuing even after WWI.
  • Massive overrepresentation of the aristocracy compared to workers.

The Outbreak of WWI

• The Russian Empire shared borders with Germany and Austria-Hungary in 1914, making it vulnerable.
• Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy allied in the Triple Alliance of 1882.
• Russia made a military alliance with France in 1894, known as the Franco-Russian alliance.
• By 1914, the Russian Army was not fit to declare war on Germany.
• Germany’s Schlieffen Plan in 1915:
  • Germany would send most of its army west, defeat France in 6 weeks, and then tackle Russia.
  • Relied on Germany mobilizing first.

Road to War

• Franz Ferdinand and his wife were murdered on June 28, 1914, in Sarajevo, Bosnia.
• Austria delivered an ultimatum to Serbia in July.
  • Serbia accepted 9 of the 10 demands, but Austria used this as grounds for war.
• On July 28, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
• Two days later, Nicholas II authorized mobilization of the Russian army.
• On July 31, the German emperor Wilhelm II threatened Tsar Nicholas with war if mobilization did not cease.
• From July 23 to August 4, the British government attempted peace talks but Germany and Austria refused.
• Germany declared war on Russia.
• German troops invaded Luxembourg and gave an ultimatum to Belgium.
• On August 3, Germany invaded Belgium and declared war.
• Italy stayed neutral.
  • Later joined the war in May 1915 on the side of the British and the French, promised territory.
• On August 4, Britain declared war on Germany.
• On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia.

Initial Enthusiasm

• Initially, the war was met with enthusiasm in Russia.
• Russia was seen as defending Serbia and its homeland, but this feeling did not last.

Impact of WWI on Russia

• Russia’s quick mobilization arguably contributed to German defeat.
• Russia quickly took on great damage and big defeats.
• Paul von Hindenburg and Erich Ludendorff commanded the German army.
  • Battle of Tannenberg (August 26-30, 1914): Germany lost 14,000 soldiers but Russia lost 170,000.
  • First Battle of the Masurian Lakes (September 2-16, 1914): Germany lost 50,000 soldiers, and Russia lost 125,000.
• Nicholas II assumed the role of commander-in-chief of the Russian army after the Great Retreat in 1915.
  • Nicholas had no military training and made mistakes.
  • Appointed his wife Alexandra to resume his role.
    • She was German, damaging reputationally.
    • Untrained and made mistakes.
• Russia’s losses meant the economy was suffering hugely.
• Inflation increased during 1916-1917.

Causes of the February 1917 Revolution

• Inflation:
  • Russia suffered hyperinflation.
  • In 1914, 98% of Russia’s bank notes were backed by gold.
  • Between 1914-1917, the state spent over 1.5 billion rubles on the war.
  • Taxes and borrowing increased.
  • Wages doubled, but prices quadrupled.
  • Living standards declined.
• Food Shortages:
  • Russia was producing enough food, but it was being diverted away from cities.
  • Petrograd was particularly affected.
  • The army had priority over food and railway access.
  • Most farmers were peasants who had been called up to fight.
  • By 1916, there was a fall in food production.
  • Farmers hoarded grain, driving up prices.
• Transportation Problems:
  • The railway system descended into chaos, as Alexandra did not know how to run them.
  • Difficulty transporting goods across the country.

Events of the February 1917 Revolution

• February 18: Workers of Putilov Factory announced a strike demanding higher wages.
  • Strikes triggered by rumours of bread ration cuts.
  • Strikes turned political and spread across the city.
• February 23: Putilov protestors joined by female protestors for International Women’s Day.
  • 200,000 people filled the streets, demanding the replacement of the Tsar and an end to the war.
• February 25: Strikes across the entire city.
• The Tsar ordered the commander of the Petrograd garrison to suppress the rioting by force.
• The Duma was ordered to shut down, but 12 Duma deputies refused, forming a provisional government.
• Kerensky was made Minister of Justice on March 3.
• February 27: The Petrograd Soviet (of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies) was established.
  • The Mensheviks and Socialist Revolutionaries took part.
  • Kerensky was elected vice-chairman.
• Nicholas II left Mogilev to return to Petrograd on February 28, but never arrived.
  • The trains were diverted due to strikes, and Nicholas arrived in Pskov.
• March 11: A mutiny began, and soldiers began to refuse orders.
  • They shot officers who commanded open fire and would shoot into the sky instead of at the protesting mob.

Abdication of Nicholas II

• March 2: Nicholas II was advised by generals to abdicate.
• Nicholas II obliged, believing his brother would succeed him.
• His brother declined the crown a day later.
• This marked the end of the 300-year-old Romanov dynasty.

Dual Authority

• Between March and October 1917, Russia fell under dual authority.
• The provisional government:
  • Comprised of middle-and upper-class deputies of the Duma.
  • Did not include the Mensheviks or Bolsheviks.
  • The first Prime Minister was Prince Lvov, an aristocrat.
  • The provisional government was not representative of Russian society with no mandate to rule.
• Petrograd Soviet:
  • Comprised of Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and Socialist Revolutionaries.
  • They were more politically radical.
  • They forced the provisional government to agree to the first decree, that orders would only be respected if the Soviet agreed with them.
  • Issued on March 1, 1917, and signed on March 2.
• The two bodies agreed to work together until there were national elections.
• Cooperation was evident with implementation of various laws including:
  • An 8-hour workday
  • Civil and Religious freedom
  • Amnesty for prisoners
  • Legalisation of trade unions
  • The right to strike
• Tensions emerged over land reforms and the war.

German Involvement

• Feb-March 1917: The German government had been bankrolling the Bolsheviks for years, as the party had been dependent on their money.
• Germany offered Lenin (Switzerland) transport to Russia.
• The aim : Lenin would rebel, get Russia and stop the war, releasing its of German troops, and relocating them against the British and the French to finally beat them.
• Lenin agrees, traveling back on the sealed train.
• Reutrns 4th September 1917

Causes of the Bolshevik/October Revolution

• April 1917: Lenin returns and publishes 10 theses.
  • They condemned the provisional government as a “parliamentary bourgeouis republic”.
  • It called for the overthrow of the government, as well as all power to go to the Soviets.
• “Peace, Bread, Land, all power to the Soviets” was Lenin’s slogan.
  • This programme was well-received by the public, as it opposed what the provisional government was offering.

Key Problems

• PROBLEM 1: Russian Provisional Government’s insistence on keeping Russia in the war
  • Casualties, war weariness, and defeatism increased.
  • Due to public discontent, the provisional government have to commit to a change in personnel in May 1917.
    • March 16 – May 1: Alexander Kerensky is the Minister of Justice.
    • May 18 – Sept 14: Kerensky becomes the Minister of War and Navy.
    • July 21 – Sept 14: Kerensky becomes the Minister-Chariman of the RPG*
    • July 8 – Kerensky becomes the Prime Minister due to the failure of the June Offensive.
  • The June Offensive of 1917 led to deaths, discrediting the government in the eyes of the Soviets.
  • This meant more people started to listen to Lenin, and the unpopularity led to the Prince Lvov resigning.
• PROBLEM 2: Land Issues
  • The Peasantry were directly seizing control of land.
    • They came from the battlefield and killed landlords.
  • Lenin allows this to gain support for the time being.
  • The provisional government’s response was to set up a very long-winded investigation, which just showed how out of touch the provisional government were.
• PROBLEM 3: The July Days
  • The July Days were a period of unrest in Petrograd, between 16-20 July 1917.
    • It was characterised by spontaneous armed demonstrations by soldiers, sailors, and industrial workers.
  • The uprising was a failure, as the government had enough troops in Petrograd to suppress it.
  • Violent nature of the July demonstrations and involvement of the Bolsheviks turned public opinion against them.
  • The government attempts to re-establish itself as a strong authority by through severe measures:
    • Trotsky was imprisoned.
    • Lenin fled to Finland.
    • Kerensky reintroduces the death penalty for military desertion.

Kornilov Affair

• The Kornilov Affair of late August was a forceful organisation in which Commander-in -Chief Kornilov travelled with soldiers to restore law and order in Petrograd. Kornilov claimed that Kerensky had given these orders.
• This was a lie, making Kerensky believe that Kornilov was attempting to increase his own power.
• Kerensky turns to the Soviets to defend the city from Kornilov and soldiers, under specific conditions:
  • Kerensky must release all the imprisoned Bolsheviks and grant them weapons…which he does.
• Lenin returns to Petrograd on the 7th October, but Kerensky cracks down on the Bolsheviks.
• Trotsky is in a powerful position
  • He is chairman of the Petrograd Soviets
  • And the chairman of the Military Revolutionary Committee, which includes soldiers.
• Lenin inspires the Bolsheviks to reattempt a seizure of power.
• Trotsky plans the takeover in Petrograd – contacts in the army, and with the Kronstadt sailors.
  • Trotsky convinces the army to not offer their support to the corrupt government, and instead ‘stay in their barracks’.
  • The Krontstadt sailors and the Red Guards seize railways, communication lines, and the Winter Palace itself.

Bolshevik Seizure of Power

• On the 27th October, Lenin announces to Congress of Soviets that the Bolsheviks had seized power from the provisional government for the sake of the people.

Reasons for the Bolsheviks’ Success

• 1. All parties except the Bolsheviks had either joined or cooperated with the provisional government.
  • This allowed Lenin to denounce them through the media as ‘middle-class sellouts’.
• 2. All parties except the Bolsheviks supported WW1
  • Lenin was able to denounce them as traitors.
• 3. The lack of tradition of party politics made it easy for Lenin to ban other parties and make Russia a one-party state.
• 4. Keresnky’s decision to release the Bolsheviks from prison aided success hugely.
  • Amongst those released was Trotsky, who planned the revolution.
• 5. The Bolshevik’s were united and dedicated to the same cause – their rivals were not.
• 6. The provisional government was only ever meant to be temporary due to the expected national elections in November
  • Therefore, it has no mandate nor backing from the people.
• 7. The provisional government was very half-hearted and delayed the suppression of the Bolsheviks
• 8. The Bolshevik’s had radicalised anyway and were eager to follow Lenin’s example of ‘Peace! Bread! Land!’
  • They thought that Lenin would give power to them.