Middle Ages (AD 500-AD1300?)

• The "Dark Ages" span from 300 to 1000 AD, with limited historical study due to scarce sources.

  • Historians focus more on the High and Late Middle Ages.

  • Lack of urban life, low literacy rates, and isolation led to a dearth of documents.

• Despite challenges, the period poses intriguing questions about the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity.

  • Influential figures like Augustine of Hippo, Arthur, and Charlemagne lived during this time.

  • Foundations laid in this era influenced later medieval developments.

Early Christian Proclamation

• Early Christians viewed Jesus as resurrected and exalted, anticipating his return to establish God's Kingdom.

  • Earliest Christian documents were in Greek.

  • Jesus was an eschatological preacher, focusing on the "end times" and the destiny of humankind.

• The first recorded Christian sermon in Acts 2 highlights Jesus as the anointed one and the King of the Jews.

  • Peter emphasizes repentance, baptism in Jesus' name, and the hope of resurrection.

• Pauline eschatology emphasizes life in Christ between his exaltation and return, with baptism symbolizing a new life in Christ.

  • Both Gentiles and Jews are justified by faith in Christ, not by works of the law.

  • Paul's doctrine of justification by faith emphasizes belief in Jesus for both Jews and Gentiles to be set right with God.

Models of Salvation

• Paul presents different models for understanding salvation, including a legal or judicial perspective.

  • Salvation is likened to a legal process where Christ pays the penalty for others' sins.

  • Christ's death is not to fulfill his penalty but to pay for others' transgressions, accepted by God through his resurrection.

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• Two Models of Salvation

  • Legal Model

    • Humans can trust God to find Christ's death sufficient for their sins.

    • Those who have faith in Christ's death are treated as not guilty and justified before God.

    • Known as Paul's "doctrine of justification by faith apart from the law."

  • Participationist View

    • Paul views salvation in apocalyptic terms, not legal.

    • Sin is a cosmic power enslaving people, and Christ's victory over sin and death allows people to escape by being united with Christ.

    • Baptism symbolizes escaping the powers of sin and death for eternal life.

• The Gospel of John

  • Describes Jesus as the Word made flesh.

  • Christians were the first to unite faith and reason due to the centrality of doctrine.

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• Christianity vs. Paganism

  • Christians unified faith and reason, unlike pagan Greek philosophers.

  • Pagan philosophers did not take their worship seriously or make rational defenses until later.

• Anti-Semitism

  • Controversies in the Gospel of John led to anti-Semitism.

  • Jesus' opponents labeled as "the Jews" inaccurately, leading to misconceptions.

• The Book of Hebrews

  • Argues Jesus' superiority over Jewish prophets, Moses, and priests.

  • Jesus' sacrifice is perfect and offered only once, fulfilling Jewish Scriptures.

• Superiority of Christ

  • Christ is the new covenant, replacing the old Jewish law.

  • Christ is the reality foreshadowed in the Hebrew Bible, surpassing Judaism.

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• Rejection of New Religion

  • Most Jews rejected Christianity early on.

  • Calling Jesus the messiah was challenging due to his crucifixion and lack of power.

• Christian Claims

  • Christians believed their religion was the true Judaism.

  • Insisting on the necessity of Jesus' death for salvation led to conflicts with traditional Jewish beliefs.

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• Christianity vs. Judaism

  • Animosities arose as Christianity became a primarily Gentile religion.

  • Christians claimed to represent Judaism as it should be, which offended Jews.

  • Christians looked to Scriptures to validate their beliefs and show God's displeasure with Jews.

  • Melito's sermon accused Jews of deicide for killing Jesus, the creator of the universe.

• Impact of Animosity

  • Animosities in the 2nd and 3rd centuries had little impact on society at large.

  • Constantine's conversion in the 4th century led to Christianity gaining power in the Roman Empire.

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• Christian Animosity Towards Judaism

  • Christian animosity towards Judaism intensified after Constantine's conversion.

  • Synagogues were burned, property confiscated, and Jews killed.

  • This period marked a dark chapter in Christianity, leading to anti-Semitism throughout the Middle Ages and culminating in the Holocaust.

• Early Christian Image Problem

  • Early Christians were perceived as public nuisances and faced persecution.

  • Christians were seen as a closed community and sometimes suspected of being a secret society.

  • False beliefs about Christians engaging in incest and cannibalism during worship services circulated.

• Persecution of Christians

  • Christians were persecuted for not participating in public ceremonies honoring state and local gods.

  • Pagans found Christians' belief in one true God and refusal to worship other gods nonsensical.

  • Christians' refusal to make public sacrifices led to them being blamed for calamities by pagans.

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• Early Christians faced persecution due to refusal to worship Roman gods

  • Persecution often started at grassroots level by family or friends

  • Christians were blamed for disasters and faced mob violence

• Provincial governors had authority to maintain peace and collect taxes

  • Christians who defied authority could be punished or executed

• Christians separated from Judaism by the 4th century

  • Anti-Judaic rhetoric emerged in the 2nd century

  • Christians needed Jewish Scriptures for credibility

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• Constantine's conversion was crucial for Christianity

  • Constantine attributed success to Christian God

  • Edict of toleration for Christians issued in 313 AD

• Constantine called the Council of Nicaea in 325

  • Council established theological positions and settled disputes

  • Nicaean Creed shaped Christianity under Constantine's influence

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• Constantine's favors led to popular conversion to Christianity

  • By the end of the century, half of the empire's subjects were Christians

• Theodosius I made Roman Christianity the official state religion

  • Opposed pagan religions and banned sacrificial practices

• Various early Christian groups existed

  • Gnosticism, Marcionites, and Ebionites had distinct beliefs

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• Nicaean Creed outlines Christian beliefs

  • Affirms belief in the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit

• Martyrs and confessors were heroes before Constantine's conversion

  • Confessors were seen as guaranteeing salvation through martyrdom

• Constantine's conversion led to opportunistic converts

  • Ascetics, hermits, and monks gained popularity post-Constantine

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• Antony the Hermit

  • Lived in Egypt, known for asceticism

  • Orphaned in teens, followed gospel text literally

  • Traveled to Alexandria to get martyred but failed

  • Developed spiritual powers, confronted Satan in the desert

  • Term "monk" derived from his followers called monachos

• Religious Virtuosos in Roman Empire

  • Various forms of religious practices in 4th-6th centuries

  • Monasticism became popular

  • Grazers, holy fools, Stylites were other movements

  • Simian the Stylite lived atop a 50-foot pole

  • Movements remained isolated in Syria and Egypt

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• Asceticism in Medieval Christianity

  • Church fathers like Ambrose, Jerome, Augustine supported asceticism

  • Asceticism believed to make humans more like angels

  • Ascetics aimed to be incorporeal like angels

  • Boethius and Cassiodorus preserved knowledge in Middle Ages

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• Benedictine Monasticism

  • St. Benedict of Norcia fathered western monasticism

  • Benedictine scriptoria spread literacy in Western Europe

  • St. Isidore of Seville continued Roman encyclopedic tradition

  • Etymologies widely read in Middle Ages, patron saint of the internet

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• Plotinus and St. Augustine

  • Plotinus defined the supreme being above the "forms"

  • Characteristics of the One: simple, above knowing and intellect

  • All souls fundamentally one, caught between intellect and body

  • God as the creator, platonic forms in the Mind of God

  • St. Augustine's influence in later Roman Empire, wrote The Confessions

  • Former Manichaean, dualist religion, later became a Christian Saint

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• Augustine's rejection of Christianity due to the style of the Christian Bible

  • Preferred Manichaeism for explaining the problem of evil

  • Manichaeism's cosmology: spiritual world is good, material world is evil

  • Influence of St. Ambrose's sermons leading Augustine to abandon Manichaeism for Neoplatonism

• Neoplatonism blending Plotinus's ideas with Christianity

  • Blending of the Bible with Platonists

  • Seeking ultimate reality (God) for eternal happiness

  • Wisdom on earth as a reflection of eternal wisdom of God (Christ)

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• Memory and remembering God in Augustine's writings

  • Inquiry into the nature of memory and remembering God

  • Concepts of creation, evil, sin, and free will in Augustine's philosophy

  • True freedom as the freedom to love God and eternal love

• Discussion on freedom, obedience, and grace in Augustine's beliefs

  • Faith as the belief in Christ's divinity and grace as a free gift from God

  • Doctrine of Predestination and God's foreknowledge

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• Augustine's views on freedom, love, and obedience

  • Love as a force driving the soul towards earthly or divine loves

  • Obedience and understanding leading to the right choices through Grace

  • Doctrine of Predestination and God's role in salvation

• Augustine's interpretation of scripture and the importance of knowledge

  • Four ways to interpret scripture accurately

  • Need for Christians to align interpretations with scientific knowledge

  • Importance of understanding nature to interpret scripture correctly

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• Augustine's perspective on predestination and salvation

  • Double predestination and God's choice in salvation

  • Importance of grace in achieving salvation

  • Original Sin and the corrupt nature of humanity

• Augustine's attitude towards science and scripture interpretation

  • Justification for persecutions like the Donatists

  • Emphasis on aligning scripture interpretation with scientific understanding

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• Augustine's guidelines for interpreting scripture accurately

  • Rationality, consistency, preservation of text, and alignment with knowledge

  • Importance of Christians not appearing foolish in interpreting scripture

  • Need for understanding nature to interpret scripture correctly

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• Augustine respects science and interprets the Bible to align with it

  • Contrasts with modern fundamentalist biblical literalists

• Augustine's Literalism differs from current understanding

  • Literal interpretation for Augustine meant explaining the actual meaning, not just the literal words

• Augustine interprets scripture differently

  • Denies creation in six days, argues a day is not 24 hours

  • Creation happened at one moment, some things actually, some in potential

• Knowledge of natural science not essential for all Christians

  • Advanced Christians interpreting scripture need to know natural science

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• Rise of Islam and Islamic Science

  • Translation movement in the Islamic Empire from 750-1000

  • Al-kindi emphasized learning truth wherever found

  • Paper production in Bagdad from Chinese prisoners of war

• European translation movement in the 12th century

  • Arabic knowledge assimilated in Latin world

  • Translation efforts in Spain, especially in Toledo

• Importance of translations from Arabic to Latin Europe

  • Recognition of Islamic culture richness

  • Gerard of Cremona as a productive translator

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• Translation activities in Sicily

  • Multilingual and multi-ethnic culture

  • Arabic scholars invited by King Roger

• Adelard of Bath's contributions

  • Translated works on astronomy

  • Possible transfer of zero to the Latin West

• Second phase of translation in the 13th century

  • Shift towards classical Greek literature

  • Willem of Moerbeke's significant translations of Aristotle and Archimedes

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• Two phases of translation movement

  • From Arabic in Spain and Sicily, then Greek translations

• Focus on scientific, mathematical, and logical works

  • Demand for logical and natural philosophical works by scholars

• Influence of Arabic advancements on Renaissance thinkers

  • Depiction of Ibn Rushd (Averroes) in Raphael's School of Athens

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• List of philosophers mentioned: Alcibiades, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Epicurus, Francesco Maria Della Rovere, Averroes, Parmenides, Diog, Heraclitus, Michelangelo, Pythagoras.

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• Albert the Great (1200-1280):

  • Known as "The Universal Doctor".

  • Taught Thomas Aquinas and interpreted Aristotle's philosophy.

  • Established Aristotelian thought in Western Christendom.

  • Conducted empirical and experimental work in natural philosophy.

• St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274):

  • Integrated Aristotelian principles with Christian theology.

  • Studied under Albert of Saxony and received his PH.D at age 31.

  • Wrote against Averroists and Augustinians.

  • Major works include Summa Theologiae and Summa contra Gentiles.

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• Thomas Aquinas' mystical experience:

  • After a vision, he considered his work as "nothing but straw or hay".

  • Some believed it was a nervous breakdown, while others saw it as an intellectual insight.

  • This event marked the end of his writing.

• Canonization and feast day:

  • Thomas Aquinas was canonized in 1323 by Pope John XXII.

  • Feast day celebrated on January 28th.

• Structure of Summa Theologiae:

  • Comprehensive in four books covering various theological aspects.

  • Elaborate logical structure with Parts, Questions, and Articles.

  • Each Article structured as a unit of dialogue with strict logical order.

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• Characteristics of Summa Theologiae:

  • Comprehensive nature covering God, creatures, redemption, incarnation, and sacraments.

  • Elaborate logical structure with Parts, Questions, and Articles.

• Thomas Aquinas' argument methodology:

  • Responding to objections with logical statements and authorities.

  • Refuting objections with developed answers and replies.

• Authorities cited by Thomas Aquinas:

  • John Damascene, Aristotle, and Gospel of John.

  • Refuting the self-evidence of God's existence based on these authorities.

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• Thomas Aquinas' response to objections:

  • Refuting the self-evidence of God's existence based on authorities.

  • Logical statements backed by works of Aristotle and biblical references.

• Thomas Aquinas' argument methodology:

  • Setting up objections and responding with logical statements and authorities.

  • Developing answers and replies to objections in a structured manner.

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• Self-evidence of God's existence

  • The proposition "God is" can be mentally admitted.

  • The idea that God exists is not self-evident.

  • Thomas Aquinas distinguishes between self-evidence in itself and to us.

  • The existence of God is not self-evident to us.

• Technical language and economic style

  • Emphasis on clarity of logical argument over literary graces.

  • Thomas' teaching about God includes "the Five Proofs" in the Summa Theologae.

  • Responds to objections with the assertion of divine existence.

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• Five Proofs of God's Existence

  • Proof of Motion, Efficient Cause, Possibility and Necessity, Natural Gradation, Governance of the World.

  • Each proof is explained with logical reasoning and examples.

  • The third proof from Possibility and Necessity is considered the most compelling.

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• Continuation of Proofs

  • Necessary existence of a being like God is argued.

  • The weakest proof is the Natural Gradation.

  • The Argument for the Governance of the World is a teleological argument.

  • Modern philosophers view the last two arguments as weaker.

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• Key Doctrines of Aquinas

  • The universe was created by God at the first moment in time.

  • God is the sole creator and the final end of the universe.

  • Evil is a measure of imperfection, not God's will.

  • Aquinas denies the authentic existence of evil through various arguments.

General:

• Aquinas' Influence and Legacy

  • Aquinas did not transcend the limits of his time.

  • His teachings on God's existence, creation, and evil are significant.

• Interpretation of Aquinas' Arguments

  • Modern philosophers critique the premises and strengths of Aquinas' arguments.

• Clarity and Structure of Aquinas' Arguments

  • Aquinas presents his arguments with a clear and structured approach.

• Integration of Philosophical and Theological Concepts

  • Aquinas blends philosophical reasoning with theological beliefs in his arguments.

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• Thomas Aquinas was an optimist, believing that everything existing is good as it tends towards act.

  • Potency leads to act in every instance of change.

  • Evil does not possess any essence or existence.

• Aquinas followed Aristotle's theory of hylomorphism, where the soul is the form of the material body.

  • Human knowledge comes from sense experience.

• Aquinas affirmed the doctrine of Original Sin but was uncomfortable with it.

  • Augustine understood the physical world well, while Aquinas did not.

• Aquinas believed human sexuality is consistent with the innocence of humans.

  • Augustine viewed human sexual impulses as deranged due to Original Sin.

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• Augustine concluded that Original Sin makes humans incapable of virtuous action without divine grace.

  • Thomas believed human nature is coherent enough to perform virtuous actions even without grace.

• Thomas argued that grace perfects nature and that all humans have the potential for virtue.

  • Some individuals may have more developed virtuous habits due to grace or innate sense of right.

• Thomas discussed marriage and fornication, presenting arguments against the notion that fornication is not a sin.

  • He emphasized the importance of marriage and the care for offspring.

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• Thomas presented arguments on why fornication is a sin according to divine law.

  • He discussed the theological end of the sexual act and the purpose of the generative seed.

• Thomas defended the family institution and the necessity for parents to care for and educate their offspring.

  • He studied human sexuality and animal behaviors, like monogamy in birds.

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• Aquinas addressed the theological end of the sexual act, stating that not all sexual intercourse is sinful.

  • He defended the idea of marriage without sin even beyond the years of procreation.

• Aquinas emphasized the importance of raising and educating offspring, especially in religious matters.

  • He considered the man more suitable for educating children due to a more developed reason.

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• Contraception is against natural law as it hinders procreation.

  • Aristotelian teleology supports the idea of procreation for populating the world.

• Thomas Aquinas viewed political society as part of God's plan for social life.

  • St. Augustine saw the state as a consequence of Original Sin to maintain order.

  • Augustine viewed the state as Earthly City in opposition to the City of God.

• Thomas believed in the importance of civic life for human virtue.

  • He accepted Aristotle's view that man is a political animal.

• Separation of Church and state is based on both deriving power from God.

  • The spiritual and secular powers have autonomy but should obey God's supreme power.

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• Thomas emphasized the jurisdictional limits of Church and state powers.

  • Laws should serve the common good and not contradict divine or natural laws.

• Four levels of law: Eternal, Divine, Natural, and Human laws.

  • The right of revolution in natural law theory stems from Thomas' treatment.

• Issues of Grace discussed by Dionysius, Augustine, and Aquinas.

  • Dionysius viewed the Trinity as incomprehensible divine One.

  • Augustine believed in the intelligibility of God through divine truth.

• Aquinas introduced the concept of elevating grace that goes beyond healing.

  • This grace elevates human nature to see God, forming the heart and soul supernaturally.

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• The concept of the supernatural reconciles Augustine and Dionysius in the Middle Ages.

  • Aquinas developed a Roman Catholic notion of grace and its relation to human nature.

• Thomas' hymn reflects philosophical and theological doubt.

  • He pleads for a mystical experience to see the glory of God's unveiled face.

• Aquinas' theory of freedom states that the Will can master goods and evils.

  • The only good beyond our Will is the sight of God, which is not revealed to maintain freedom.

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• Roger Bacon, the "Marvelous Doctor," was an English Franciscan interested in natural philosophy.

  • Bacon shifted from Aristotelian to Neoplatonic thinking, advocating for mathematics as the basis of studies.

  • He proposed correcting the Julian Calendar and mentioned gunpowder.

  • Bacon believed scientific knowledge would arm Christianity against the anti-Christ.

• Bacon criticized Dominicans like Albert and Aquinas, preferring Augustinian thought.

  • He favored a Pythagorean approach to nature over Aristotelian methods.

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• Charlemagne aimed to convert people to Christianity, leading to the Carolingian Renaissance.

  • He converted Saxons and used the Heliand, a Saxon gospel version, to present Christianity.

• The Heliand portrays Jesus as a chieftain and his disciples as warrior companions.

  • Carolingians focused on ecclesiastical reform and extending the parish system.

• Louis the Pious and Benedict of Aniane supported monastic reform under Charlemagne.

  • The Carolingian Renaissance focused on practical scholarship and improving Latin skills.

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• The Heliand's portrayal of the gospel differs significantly from the original account.

  • Carolingians sponsored missionary activities and ecclesiastical reforms.

• The quality of Carolingian clergy was a concern, with priests often poorly educated.

  • Bishops behaved similarly to wealthy lay aristocrats, leading to the need for reform.

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• Charlemagne supported learning and scholars during the Carolingian Renaissance.

  • Scholars read classical literature to improve Latin skills for studying important works.

• Charlemagne's practical approach to scholarship aimed to serve ecclesiastical reform.

  • The Carolingian Renaissance focused on practical applications of classical literature.