mcglone exam 2

CHAPTER 5: The American Revolution 1776-1783

Tensions Rise

• Summer– July 4th 1776 – Second Continental Congress endorsed the Declaration of Independence and signed. 

• Stamp Act, Townshend Tariffs, Tea Act, Boston Massacre, Gaspee Affair, Tea Party created hostility 

• 1774 – First Continental Congress in Philadelphia – denounced taxes

  • Attendees: George Washington, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Jay, etc. 

• April 1775 –  Lexington & Concord – First shots of revolution taken 

British Response

• July 1776 – British sent 35k troops, 4k horses, plus half of the navy across the ocean to the colonies.

• Also recruited Loyalists, Natives & African Amerians (slaves) 

  • Hired foreign mercenaries and loyalists

British Strategy 

• Blockade of N.E. seaports failed

  • Supply of 37 tons of food for the soldiers, 37 tons of feed for horses

  • No clear strategy – Trial and Error for the British

• General Sir William Howe defeated Washington at battle of Long Island

  • AKA – Battle of Brooklyn Heights

• Failed attempt to drive wedge between NE and NY

• British lock in after losing George Washington – hone in on New York

• (1778-1779) Final strategy was to move an army through the Southern colonies to rally Loyalists there to cause. 

  • Believed that the colonists were more loyal – was true, but turned them into patriots

• Continental Army

  • Under trained, under fed, did not have enough funds

  • 100,000 Americans were for the Continental Army and another 100,000 were for the state militia

• The British Army was more successful in recruiting the Native Americans with the promise of keeping their lands safe. 

George Washington Profile

• Born on February 17 on family’s Virginian plantation

• Land surveyor at the age of 16 – Surveyor of Western lands in his youth

  • Part of the reason why he was chosen to lead in the French and Indian War

• Served as military officer for British during French & Indian Wars

  • London Gazette published one of his letters

  • Did not like how people in the military are told to lead

  • Despised British officers

  • Resigned his commision in 1758

• Delegate in Virginia’s House of Burgesses 1758-1774

  • Married to Martha Custous – Owns a huge amount of land in Mount Vernon

  • George Washington got sick with smallpox and never smiled b/c his teeth fell out

Canada

• July 1775 – Continental Congress authorized invasion of Quebec (hoped for French support).

  • Thought that this would be a quick victory 

• Acting governor of Quebec – Guy Carrolton passed the Quebec Act of 1774 

  • Policies of Guy caused the French to be neutral

  • Tolerated the French and the Roman Catholic Church

•  Sept 1775 – 2 expeditions advanced to Quebec under General Richard Montgomery & Colonel Benedict Arnold.

  • Captured Montreal 

  • Benedict Arnold – most famous traitor – fought on the Americans and then turned towards the British after a while

  • Montogery killed and Arnold injured while trying to take Quebec

•  Weather, disease and British artillery ended the American siege of Quebec.

• Arnold eventually turned traitor and plotted to turn West Point over to the British.

George Washington’s Escape

• July 2nd 1776 – 1st wave of British troops landed on Staten Island

• Summer 1776 – British troops landed on Staten Island

  • 400+ warships, 30k+ troops, 1200 cannons, 10k sailors on Long Island

• Washington had 19k poorly trained men.

•  December 1776 – only 3k men at his disposal.

“The American Crisis” 

• Published December 19, 1776 by Thomas Paine

• Washington had Thomas Paine’s pamphlet read aloud to his dispirited troops

• Christmas night 1776 – his men defeated 1500 German mercenaries

  • Hessy Castle – Hessians were Germans (30,000 hired by the British throughout the course of the war)

  • James Monroe, a future president, nearly died after getting his artery nicked

• January 2 – Defeated Earl Cornwallis at the Battle of Princeton

• Throughout the winter – Morristown was home for the Continental Army after retreating– ¼ of his men laid sick in their beds 

  • Smallpox was the worst – George Washington ordered the mass inoculation of the Continental Army against Smallpox

• Spring 1777 more and more people are joining the continental army

  • 100 acres of land plus 20 dollar promise

British Setbacks 1777

• Wished to separate NE colonies from the rest

• General John Burgoyne pushed South from Canada, but General William Howe chose to move his men to Philadelphia 

  • Nickname was general swagger

  • Howe gets impatient and makes his way to Philadelphia – beating an American force at the battle of Brandywine Creek

  • Surrounded by American forces on all sides by American Patriots

• Americans under General Horatio Gates defeated Burgoyne at the Battle of Saratoga

  • After 3 weeks – 1500, 7k, and 4k cannons surrendered to Americans – Huge victory for the Americans

• French entered the war on the American side

Treaty of Amity and Commerce

• Signed February 6th, 1778 in Paris

  • French, Spanish, and Dutch all helped the colonies (America) – Global war

• Neither French nor U.S. would agree to a separate peace with Great Britain

  • Benjamin Franklin, Sylus Dean, Arthur Lean. 

• France officially recognized the United States of America and promoted trade ties. 

• British now nervous – offered all the grievances that the colonist wanted

  • Valley Forge – 2,500 dead – 1,000 deserted – others executed 

  • Baron Voy Student – Soldier of fortune, offered serviced to George Washington — shape up the army, for regiments, military instruction

  • Marquis De Lafayette – buys into the idea of freedom and liberty – donates 200k in cash to fuel the war effort

The Frontier 

• Guerrilla warfare

• Loyalists + Natives vs isolated Patriots (and some native american allies) along Ohio Valley, Western New York and Western Pennsylvania 

  • Natives often paid for scalps of patriots

  • Iriqouis lined themselves up with the Loyalists

  • Loyalists (Tories) and Whigs (Patriots)  

• Frontiersmen banded together under Geore Rogers Clark to seize outposts

  • 175 Patriots gathered to push back the British in the Ohio River Valley 

War Moves South

• British hoped for large Loyalist + slave support in the South

  • Southern colonies more economically beneficial to the Royal Empire

• Late 1778 – General Sir Henry Clinton began to seize strategic port cities of Savannah + Charleson

  • 3,000 men were sent to Savannah, Georgia (Seized on Dec. 29 1778) 

• Patriots under Major General Benjamin Lincoln failed to retake Charleston

  • Surrendered May 12, 1778 and about 3,000 troops

• General Charles Cornwallis had Georgia and South Carolina under British control by 1780

  • Mid 1780, 9,000 American troops – injured, killed, captured. 

  • 9,000 troops and 5,000 sailors sent down from New York to conduct a 3 month siege 

• Situation looked bleak for Americans after three major defeats – Also, French and Spanish tired of war. 

  • Bernardo De Galvez – Fought along the Mississippi River, was a major thorn.

• British tactics forced loyalists to move over to the Patriots

Battle of King’s Mountain

• Sir Banastre Tarleton & Major Patrick Ferguson sparked  outrage with laying waste to farmland that were owned by Patriots

• More people died in captivity than actually fighting 

  • 18,000 died as POWs 

• British labelled “Bloodybacks” and “Lobsters”

• October 7, 1780 Patriots clashed with troops along Carolina border hurting British strategy in the South.  (In a way, it’s a civil war) 

  • 74 sets of brothers fighting each other on the battlefield

  • 30 sets of fathers and sons fighting each other

• General Daniel Morgan had Patriot militias in the South. 

  • After firing – they ran into the woods and the British were ambushed by Americans.

• At the Battle of Cowpens in January 1781, Tarleton lost 800 men to Morgan’s 100.

British Retreat

• Cornwallis retreated to Yorktown peninsula in June 1781.

  • Wants to resupply in New York

• With French aid Washington headed for Chesapeake

  • A large fleet of French ships lead by Degrasse 

  • Cornwallis not able to get help from York Town due to British ships being repaired– failed to stop French aid.  

• British retreated to New York after French naval victory 

• October 17th, 1781 – Cornwallis surrendered

• February 27th, 1782 – British voted for no more war

  • The slaves who fought on the British side were chased after by slave owners. 

• King George III wrote the letter of abdication after losing to the colonies – Cornwallis actually pretended to be sick so that he didn't have to face the humility of loss.

Treaty of Paris 1783

• September 1783

• Peace-talks begin in 1782

  • John Adams, John Jay, Benjamin Franklin were sent over as the diplomats

  • Jefferson wondered why John Adams was sent over since he hated everyone. 

• Great Britain recognized the independence of the former 13 colonies 

• Great Britain ceded all land to Mississippi River in West

  • Land from 1763 Treaty of Paris now belongs to the newly formed United States

• Nation doubled in size 

  • U.S. Larger than any European nation

  • Spain regained control of Florida 

• U.S agreed not to persecute Loyalists

  • 83,000 loyalists flee to Canada to stay under the rule of King George III

  • Nov. 1783 last British troops left New York

Changes in The Land

• 1775-1783 – Embraced a republican ideology

  • America is more of an Egalitarian Democracy

• Representative democracy – property holding white men would govern themselves

  • Indirect representation– vote in legislators and representatives in office.

• Wave of state constitutions enacted to ensure national government didn’t restrict rights

  • Bill of rights were created for each state

• Fear of central authority – belief federal rule impractical over such a large nation. 

Articles of Confederation 1776

• July 1776 – Articles of Confederation and Perpetual union were drafted

• March 1781 – Articles of Confederation are ratified 

  • Coined by some historians as the Articles of Disaster

• Under the Articles of Confederation

  • Continental congress became Congress of the Confederation

  • States remain sovereign + independent → congress used as a last resort for disputes

  • Congress could make treaties and alliances with foreign nations – maintain armed forces – coin money

  • No power to levy taxes + no regulation of commerce

  • Went into effect 1781

Post-Revolutionary America 

• Increased interest in politics

• More voters (Mostly white men who owned property and paid state tax)

  • Alerted the founding fathers based on the large increase in voters

• Increased nationalism

• Complete freedom of religion  – previously tolerated religious dissent

• 1776 Virginia drafted the declaration of rights = guaranteed free exercise of religion

• 1786 Virginia Statute of Religious Freedom written by Jefferson – Virginia the first to separate church and state. 

• White women got an education

Black & Indians

• Dunmore Proclamation –Nov. 1775 – Offered freedom to slaves to those who joined the British army, 20% of African Americans joined the British (20k)

  • 5k African Americans fought for the patriots

  • Angered white plantation owners

• The British Army enlisted 20k. Transported them to Nova Scotia, Caribbean and England for service. 

• Slavery Abolished in the North – barely existent there anyways

  • 1804 New Jersey was the last state in the North to call for an end to slavery 

• Southern politicians fought to maintain slavery

• Many Natives were displaced and exploited by the U.S. Government 

  • Would sign 100+ treaties with them but ended up breaking them anyways. 

Understanding the British Defeat

• Insufficient resources

• Lack of loyalist support

• Popularity of Revolution

• An army of conquest but not of occupation

• Use of foreign mercenaries (Hessians), natives and slaves angered Americans

• Poor logistics and massive distance

  • Took 8 months for a letter to travel from Britain to Canada, as well as getting horses delivered in rough conditions.

CHAPTER 6: Creating a More Perfect Union (1783-1800)

Background

• 1780’s – distrust of centralize authority is high 

• Articles of Confederation created a loose alliance of 13 independent states

• New national govt. - just one house = Unicameral central government– each state has one vote

  • EX: Virginia 747,000 people only one vote.

  • No Executive branch 

• National government is WEAK by design

  • No power to enforce anything 

  • “Half-starved limping government” - George Washington

• Voluntary contributions from the states to help keep the government running

• Continentals printed out – Gold and Silver shipped off to Europe to by supplies

Land Policy

• 1784- 1787 – 3 major policies “ordinances” to develop territory West of the states.

  • Helps to generate money.

• 1784 – 1st land ordinance – Jefferson’s ordinance – territory population equal in size to smallest state population qualified for statehood.

• 1785 – A plan of sales in Northwest Territory

  • 265k square miles of land.

  • Townships are established 

  • Sold acres for less than a dollar 

  • Eventually became 5 future states

    • Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, Illinois 

Northwest Ordinance of 1787

• Tried to figure out what a government would look like in this territory –

• Division of Northwest Territory into not less than 3 nor more than 5 states

• Three stage process of admittance:

  • 1st Phase: appointed governor, secretary , and 3 judges to rule -

    • When 5,000 males are living – elected assembly made

  • 2nd Phase:

    • An elected assembly and one elected non-voting delegate to Congress

  • 3rd Phase (60K pop):

    • Make a state constitution: must include 

    • Bill of Rights – Religious freedom, trial by jury

    • NO SLAVERY – none north of the Ohio river

    • 1803 Ohio became the first state admitted this way. 

Economic Problems

• Spain said American ships cannot sail up the Mississippi River

• Slaves escaped from plantations

  • British still in the United States

• British trade restrictions

  • British still sees American as enemies 

• Because of Articles of Confederation – Each state could establish their own tariffs.

• 1785-1786 Seven states began printing their own money to help farmers pay off their debts.

  • Many fought in the promise of war bonus.

• No national currency – few banks

• Large debts

Shay’s Rebellion

• Merchant class in Massachusetts asked legislators to raise taxes on their goods.

• Many poor farmers' property are already foreclosed on and unable to vote (in Mass.) 

  • Demand the printing of money to receive their war bonus

  • Many farmers had to rely on bartering

• August 1786 – A group of farmers marched to New Hampton to shut down court proceedings. 

• Jan. 1787 Shays and insurgents sought to raid a weapons dump in Springfield

  • Private business owners would raise their own army

• 1200 militia under William Shepard resisted – 4 insurgents killed and 20 wounded

• Shays and followers retreated to Pelham Hills – hunted down and dispersed 

  • Shay retreats to Canada

• State legislature eliminated some taxes and fees on farmers.

  • George Washington, James Madison, and others worried for what they saw.

  • Washington was embarrassed that the newly independent colonists could not govern themselves.

Creating the Constitution

• September 1786 meet at Maryland to think about revise Articles of Confederation

• Constitutional convention at Pennsylvania State House, Philadelphia May 25, 1787 to revise Articles of Confederation

  • 55 delegates show up, all states except Rhode Island answered the invitation

• Four months later signed a new constitution, September 17th.

  • George Washington offered to preside over the convention

• Most delegates agreed with James Madison on need for stronger national government – ableist political figure 

  • James Madison comes to the convention extremely prepared – looked throughout past ancient societies

• National government should have authority over the people – not state governments

  • Most delegates were young – 26 being college graduates, 2 college presidents, 42 lawyers, 2 dozen owned slaves, 8 have previously signed the Declaration Independence

• Should be able to tax, borrow, and issue money. 

• States should not be able to print money, wage war or levy taxes on imports (Federalist approach)

  • Federalism – 2 governments controlling the same group of people – sharing power over the people in those states.

Two Plans – 

•  Virginia Plan – James Madison differs it to Edmund Randolph, governor of Virginia,  suggested a bicameral legislature and representation from each state based on population or wealth 

  • Serve 7 years in the upper house, and 3 years in the lower house

  • Would mostly benefit Virginia

• New Jersey Plan – William Paterson, attorney general of NJ – equal representation in Congress

  • Larger states hate it

• Connecticut Compromise/ Great Compromise – Bicameral

  • Proportional in lower and equal in upper

Great Compromise

• Premise of the three branches of government was to prevent abuse of power → executive, judicial, and legislature

• Congress: Senate a conservative force to protect minority 

• Executive: President could veto unless ⅔ majority in both houses overrode it.

  • The President could not unilaterally declare war without a congressional vote.

  • The President could be impeached by the lower house and convicted in the upper house.  

• Judiciary: National Supreme Court to interpret the law

Slaves & Women

• For representation in Congress – Slaves ⅗ of a person

  • More people in a state = more representatives sent to the lower house

• Slaves considered property for taxation purposes.

• Slave inclusion in population figures helped Southern States

  • Allowed Southern states to dominate for the first 20 years

• Natives could be considered citizens if they paid a tax

  • Seen as separate nations

• No discussion of women’s political rights 

Federalists VS. Anti-Federalists

Sept. 28, 1787 the first draft of the constitution was drafted

* Most federalists at the time were mostly 10  years younger than those with Anti-Federalists 

• Federalists: 

• 1787-88 → 85 essays (Federalist Papers in support of constitution – authors incl. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, & John Jay. 

  • 9 out of 13 need to agree for it to become law

• Arguments would preserve the Union and empower the federal government to act firmly in national interest. 

• Representative congress, presidential veto and judicial review = fair resolution of conflict

Anti-Federalists

• June 1788 – 

• Central government = dangerous – corruption and tyranny

• No Bill of Rights to protect ordinary people

  • Included Patrick Henry & James Monroe 

Bill of Rights

• Roots can be traced back to the Magna Carta

  • 1689 – British adopted their own bill of rights

• May 1789 – Madison proposed Constitutional Amendments to protect individual rights. 12 proposed, 10 ratified.

  • 1st – no law respecting establishment of religion or prohibition of free exercise

  • Others safeguarded speech, assembly, press, firearms, no to housing soldiers, no to unreasonable searches, right to refuse to testify against oneself, speedy public trial with impartial jury, and protection against cruel and unusual punishment.

• Debate over the constitution led to the birth of political parties – Federalists VS. Republicans.  

Parties

• Democratic Republicans:

  • Included: Jefferson, Madison (who changed his views), & Monroe favored Southern farmers and liked states rights, less power to the Federal government, and strict interpretation of the constitution

• Federalists:

  • Included Alexander Hamilton – who embraced urban and commercial growth, finance, banking, and manufacturing

• March 4th, 1789 – Congress has its first meeting in the new capital of the United States in New York 

  • George Washington appointed as President

    • Chooses Thomas Jefferson for department of the State

    • Alexander Hamilton as the Secretary of Treasury 

    • Henry Knox – Secretary of War

    • John Jay as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court

Rise of Capitalism:

• Adam Smith “Wealth of Nations” 950 page book

  • Argued specialization which leads to huge productivity gains

  • Both sides benefited from trade – not just the seller

  • Criticized mercantilism → snubbed and inhibited growth

  • Entrepreneurs should be able to compete freely for profits

  • Competition = Economic prosperity

Alexander Hamilton – Secretary of Treasury

• Admired Smith’s work

• Argued that the nation needed to pay off war debts and Federal government should be responsible

  • Each state had to pay their share of the debt

• Sought 5% tariff on a wide variety of imported goods.

  • The Compromise of 1790:

  • Madison and Jefferson agreed the Federal government should absorb the debt

  • Hamilton had to promise that the capital would move to Philadelphia – Washington D.C. was now built

• Bank of United States established 1791 – 20 year old charter

  • Not in the constitution but Hamilton fought for it

  • Almost all representatives in the North voted for it, while the South was against it.

• Submitted “Report on Manufacturers” to Congress Dec. 1791

  • Need to encourage manufacturing growth through subsidies, regulation, and moderate tariffs. 

Republican Alternative

• Jefferson and Madison felt the South and West discriminated against

  • Not a lot of major cities in these lands

• Jefferson wanted a decentralized agrarian republic. 

  • A nation of small farmers

  • Increased fracturing in Congress

Foreign & Domestic Crises

• Biggest foreign problem was the French Revolution

• 1789 – French Revolution – Hamilton and Washington viewed it as homicidal anarchy – declared neutrality

  • French was an absolute monarchy

  • 1789 King Louis surrenders some of his powers – led to democratic monarchy

  • 1793 – King Louis and many others get executed – Militaristic republican rose up

• Britain VS. France hurt U.S. economy 

  • Britain set up a blockade and seized any ships heading towards France 

• John Jay was sent to London in 1794 and kept U.S. out of the conflict

• “Jay’s Treaty”

  • Got British to withdraw troops from 6 Northwestern Territory posts

  • Joint commission to handle boundary disputes

  • Compensation agreement on seized ships

  • Freedom of commerce.

  • Approved by ⅔ in Senate (20 for and 10 against)

Whiskey Rebellion 1794

• 1791 – Hamilton called for a liquor tax

• Liquor is an informal currency on frontier 

  • Easy to distill liquor and sell it than selling grain in the market 

  • A tie to their livelihood

• July 94 – 500 men attacked the regional tax inspector home in Western Pennsylvania

  • George Washington called for the troops to back down → called for a militia from four neighboring states

• Failed negotiations = 13k troops to region

  • Washington eventually pardoned them.

• National authority success but tyranny?

  • Proof that the government was more powerful than the time of Shay’s rebellion

Pinckney’s Treaty (Treaty of San Lorenzo)

• Helped to figure out the borders between Spanish Florida and US territories 

• 1795 → Spain and the U.S. foxed the Southern boundary of USA at 31 degrees Northern latitude

• U.S. granted free navigation of Mississippi River through Spanish territory without being harassed,

Domestic Politics

• Three new states under Washington – Vermont, Kentucky and Tennessee

• His farewell speech – avoid partisanship and sectionalism, no foreign entanglements and no permanent alliances

  • More widely distributed than the Constitution

• 1796 Election – President John Adams (Federalist) and Jefferson Vice President (Democratic Republicans)

  • State legislatures used to vote instead of the people 

  • 71 votes went to Adams

• Adams inherited the undeclared war with France, a quasi war. 

Problems with France

• American ships still being plundered in Europe and the Caribbean by French ships 

• “X,Y,Z, Affair” angered Adams – pay a bride of ¼ million dollars and 10 million as a loan

  • John Pickney, John Marshall, Elbridge Gerry, were the U.S. representatives sent

  • X: Jean-Conrad Hottinguer, Y: Pierre Bellamy, Z: Lucien Hauteval

• Convention of 1800 with France brought Peace – negotiate with Napoleon

Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798

• Limited freedom of speech and press

• Could deport foreigners easier

• Made it harder to gain citizenship (5 years to 14 years)

• Federalists argued it improved national security

• Outrage over Act influenced Election of 1800

  • Feds: Adams and Charles Pinckney 

  • Reps: Jerreson and Aaron Burr

• Judiciary Act 1801 – Adams created 16 new federal district courts with federalist-leaning judges

  • Safeguarding the fortunes of the federalist party. 

  • Lowered the number of Supreme court judges

• Adams refused to attend inauguration of Jefferson

CHAPTER 7: Forming & Testing U.S. Military Institutions 1786-1705 (TA Lecture)

Themes In History 105? (Class Activity) 

• Geography – How different colonies were funded → different structures  

• Politics (Governments/ Institutions) 

• Economics – How money affects communities

• Expansion/ Colonization

• Religion

• Gender 

• Health

• Art

• Society 

Agenda

1. National Security and the US Constitution

2. Washington, Adams, and the Federalists Military Against Internal Threats

3. Thomas Jefferson’s Anti-Federalist Plan

4. The U.S. Navy and External Threats

5. Fighting Pirates in the Mediterranean – The First Barbary War

GOALS TO ADDRESS

1. )How did Federalist and Anti-Federalist debates on National Security shaped founding military policies?

2. )What External and Internal threats existed to national security following the American Revolution which forced the creation of standing military forces and institutions?

3. ) Why did the US get involved in their first international conflicts and how successful were these actions?

After the Revolution

• An uneasy peace treaty is signed in 1783

  • British diplomats refused to show up for the portraits during the peace treaty 

  • Peace becomes a question

• New Government has NO money and lots of debt! (Articles of Confederates)

  • States are responsible for their own and collective defense of the new nation

• Disbanding national forces

  • Continental army, navy, marines are dissolved

  • Ceremonial only → remaining sent to West Point to de

  • Auction 11 remaining ships of the Continental Navy in 1785

    • 35 are originally commissioned, some returned to France

    • Last ship: Alliance, sold to private business owner for 26k → 850k now

3 National Security Problems Emerge

1. Internal divides and Unrest

• Revolutions and Revolts become the biggest way to make a point in the new United States

• Shay’s Rebellion (1786)

• Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

2. Native American communities on the frontiers do not agree with Westward expansion

• Tensions in Western Expansion

• Treaties and reservations

3. Foreign powers threatening U.S. citizens and economic interests

• No more navy during this time

• No longer protected from piracy in the Caribbean and Mediterranean 

  • British encouraged pirates to target American vessels as a form of payback

The U.S. Constitutional Convention (1787)

• Federalists and Anti-Federalists argue on both the government AND military forms

  • Federalists = Strong military presence

  • Anti-Federalists = Fear of oppressive military force → was for state militias

• “... insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense…. secure the Blessings of Liberty” → Parts of the Preamble of the United States Constitution

Article 1, Section 8 → Legislative Power

• Punish Piracies

• Congress has the right to declare war

• Congress has the obligation to raise and support armies

• To provide and Maintain a Navy

• Congress has the ability to (when agreed upon) provide for calling forth the Militia

Article 2, Section 2 – Executive Power

• The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States

  • Civilian power above military service → Anti-federalist power to protect of overreach of military power

• Only the President has the power to make treaties

• Only the President has the power to appoint any officer of the United State

Article 4, Section 4 – Responsibility to the States

• The U.S. shall guarantee to every state in the union a Republican form of government

• The U.S. shall protect each of them against Invasion and against domestic violence.

First Internal Test → Whiskey Rebellion

• 1791 Congress agrees to tax on whiskey → lead to the Whiskey Rebellion

• Congress delegates power to call forth the militia 

• May 2nd, 1792 Congress passed this → Washington drafts 12,950 men in the Militia Army

  • Washington has temporary power on how to delegate the authority → does not want to use militaristic force against citizens. 

• August 7, 1794 → Presidential proclamation was sent out with regret that the militia forces are to be used.

• By September 30th → Washington is the first and only president is the only one to lead forces in the field

• This showed that the U.S. could suppress uprising without tyranny

  • The new US national identity could be secure as a whole and not as states

The Northwest Indian War 1785-1795

•  (Mostly the Ohio River Valley)

• Settlers from various states vying for Land

• Miami Chief Mshikenikwe (Little Turtle) led the Western Confederacy (A collective force of Native Americans) 

  • Understood the importance of irregular warfare

  • Supplied by the British, heavily relied on

• Series of defects and heavy casualties for US forces. 

  • 1st American Regiment Failures (1784-1790) 

    • Led by Josiah Harmer → meant to restore the peace 

  • Arthur St. Clair’s took control of the 1st American Regiment, and faced the worst military defeat in history  (1791)

    • Meets Little Turtle’s forces in the Wabash River (Battle of Wabash / St. Clair’s defeat) → 623 killed - 248 missing (97% of US forces) – 21 men killed and 41 wounded in Western Confederacy 

Legion of the United States

• General Anthony “Mad Anthony” Wayne – hand selected by President Washington

  • Forms the more formal of the legion of the United States

  • Called for Baron Friedrich von Steuben (Callback to Valley Forge)

• Creates regular standing army

  • 2 parts: frontier fighters & Engineers/Artillery 

  • Mix of irregular warfare

  • Able to keep troops away 

• Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794) 

  • Wayne’s forces vastly outnumber the Western Confederacy → was a more traditional battle that was considered an American success

    • Native Americans defeated

• Treaty of Greenville 

  • Native Americans cede Ohio territory in exchange of Western land and funds (Established US control in 1795)

  • NOTE: Only Native Americans were allowed to negotiate treaties with the Federal Government which is what sets them apart!

    • This treaty sets a precedent for modern day Native American Rights!

  • US Army was allowed to establish forts at the epicenter of Native American territory 

  • One of the many treaties that the United States signed with the Native Americans but were not upheld.

• US Army becomes the Frontier’s Diplomats

  • Settle treaties – 12 Indian nations who signed the treaty were promised land further west of the Ohio River Valley, and funds to set up communities.

The End of Washington’s Presidency in 1796

• Lesson → The US constitution successfully provide the means to address internal threats

  • Federalist Sub-lessons: Support the growth of these institutions (70% gov. spending)

  • Anti-Federalists (Democratic Republicans): Concede importance, growing fear politicization of the military 

The Jeffersonian Military 

• Military budget cuts

  • Purged the military officers who were political

• Emphasis on multi-use programs – an army in service of the nation

  • Education – Anti-federalists support the building of an educational academy at West Point

  • Exploration → Lewis and Clarke, US Navy Coastal surveys

  • Science & Federal Projects → Roads, Dams, Bridges, Fortification programs

  • Diplomacy 

• United States military academy established, West Point, 1802

  • U.S. Corp of Engineers was at its core → mainly taught primary military skills

• US military becomes more available to the public under Jefferson

External Threats and the U.S. Navy

• American neutrality

  • Decides to not get involved in the French revolution or Napoleonic wars

• International commerce

  • U.S. subject to British blockades → leads to United States needing to raise its own navy

  • Sugar and Cotton trade is what U.S. mostly relies on

• Piracy increases

  • Usually independent or state-sponsored pirates to plunder ships

• Act to provide naval armament (1794)

  • First method to restarting a U.S. navy after the Continental navy 

  • Provided 6 frigates, officers, and crews

    • Frigates are considered medium sized ships of the era – averaging 32-23 guns per ship that provide flexibility

    • President Adams chooses to build 689K a piece (13 million dollars today)

• 1795 Revolutionary war debts are paid off

Mission of the US Navy 

• Risk Fleet:

  • Large fleet

  • Uses intimidation to get concessions (EX: Great Britain)

  • Takes a lot of money 

• Commerce Protection:

  • Small specialized fleet

  • Designed for regional protection

    • EX: German submarine fleet in WW1

Joshua Humphreys Super Frigates

• Took what he learned from Europe and used it while building ships for the U.S.

• Used Southern Live Oak

  • Very durable, flexible, porous, and hard

  • Unique to the United States

  • Led to many economic markets for shipbuilding

• The first 3 ships built were:

• USS United States

• USS Constitution

• USS Constellation

  • Other 3 ships are delayed because 

  • Chesapeake, Congress, and Walthead

A Quasi-War: XYZ Affair

• Starts seizing American ships because United States in 1795 signed on an alliance with Great Britain → France sees this as a slap to the face

• Congress does NOT declare War

The Quasi War 1798-1800 /Needing A Secretary of the Navy

• 1798, Benjamin Stoddert is chosen as Secretary of the Navy  for political leanings (Antifederalist)

  • Takes an offensive approach in the Caribbean 

• Adopts a policy of going to the core instead of holding an offensive

  • US captures 85 French warships 

• US super frigates are considered marvels of the age

  • US Marines and officers see their first conflict

  • July 11, 1798, US Marines officially reinstated

• US Marine Amphibious landing at Curacao

  • In two days US had full control of the harbor

Effects of the Quasi-War 

• Wars are costly → John Adams taking a lot of heat for the war

• Treaty of France (1800) → ratified by Congress in 1801

  • The French will no longer attack or seize US vessels → vice versa for the U.S.

  • Restores relations to pre-war → No official alliance

• US navy goes from 6 vessels to 30 vessels

  • Educated naval class now into play

• Unified Navy/Marine services with mission

Military Action V. Declared War

• Allows Congress the ability to authorize military actions WITHOUT officially declaring war

  • A supreme court case allows this for the U.S. to set the precedent

  • Practiced by American involvement in the Gulf War and Vietnam War

The Jeffersonian Navy

• Jefferson wins against Adams in the presidential election

  • More pro-navy than pro-army 

• Key Principles

  • Military budget cuts – (70% of the U.S. budget)

    • Believed that having too strong of a military presence will lead to U.S. foreign entanglements

  • Joint coastal defense  

• Gunboats are put into play

  • Shallow, very fast, and smaller compared to frigates

  • Perfect for coastal defense 

  • Halts production of 6 large super frigates.

The Barbary States

• Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli

  • Demanded payment for passage through the Mediterranean Sea

  • No payment then ships are seized and crew set for hostage

• State-sanctioned Piracy 

• Not privateers or Navy 

• Sees tributes very differently = new treaty must be signed

• Jefferson says no to paying new treaty 

• Tribute (Bribes) for protection (1796)

  • US 1796 – Treaty to Algiers – $642,000 +21,000 as an annual tribute

  • US naval armament budget – $689,000

    • Seen as more cost effective than having to pay off each hostage ransom

Tripoli

• Pasha Yusuf Karmanli demands new tribute from the new government 

  • Demands Jefferson pay 245k in tribute 

  • Builds a frigate 

  • Cultural difference between the Barbary States and USA

  • Pasha cuts down the flagpole of the U.S. consulate instead of officially declaring war

• Pirates allowed to attack the US ships again

  • Swedish actually informed the US of the action, and the conflicts. 

  • Congress declares war February 4th, 1802 on Tripoli

• US Squadron = missed opportunity

  • Had gifts for them to actually try and smooth out relationships

• Congress supports 1802 Act, not formal Declaration of War

  • They don't see the barbary states as a legitimate form of power

Richard Dale’s Squadron

• 3 frigates and 1 Schooner ( USS Enterprise)

• USS Enterprise v. Tripoli

  • August 1st 1801

  • Attempt to feign surrender 3 different times

  • Schooner (12 guns) v. Corsair (14 guns)

  • U.S. prevails because crew is more experienced with guns 

    • 30 dead for Tripoli, and none for the U.S.

    • Cannons thrown overboard and center mast cut down

  • Humiliating defeat for Tripoli

• Over the next 2 years, the conflict continues.

• No clear winner/loser of the conflict

• Jefferson sends another commander

Commodore Edward Preble

• Commander of the USS Essex

• Revolutionary War privateer and Quasi War veteran

• Arrives September 1803 and recognized personal problem

  • Most officers are inexperienced on the ships (Preble’s boys)

  • Ages are 15-30 years old 

• Starts an education program in naval tactics and warfare

  • Discipline, training, and initiative 

  • Creates some of the regulations in the navy that are still used to this day!

• Under his command he sends a precedent → ships become more aggressive

Loss of the USS Philadelphia

• One of the super frigates of the age

• Ran the ship aground in the Tripoli harbor 

• Ship is eventually captured by the Tripoli

  • Turned into a floating gun battery

  • Crew of the Philadelphia, all 300 plus men, are taken hostage for 19 months 

• Vanbridge is smart and wrote a hidden message on the side of his letter in lemon juice

  • Leaks plans of plot to use the philadelphia 

Split Missions

• 1804 

• Stephen Decatur

  • February 18, 1804 

  • 80 men (marines, sailor, arab private recruit) set out on a secret attack on the Philadelphia

  • Renamed a captured ship the Intrepid

  • Successfully boards and destroys the USS Philadelphia by firing upon the gunpowder supply

  • Was considered a huge success and propelled Stephen Decatur into a captain seat at 25 years old.

• Edward Preble

  • 4 Bombardments of the harbor

  • Loss of the USS Intrepid → blown up by accidental raid 

    • All the crew was lost

  • Does not necessarily force the release of captured US Navy Prisoners

• These missions earned the US Navy the respect from others

William Eaton’s Land Campaign

• Former army officer and Diplomat of the console 

  • Promoted to Naval Lieutenant

• Diplomatic → Replace Yusuf Karamanli with his ousted brother, Hamet Karamanli 

  • Tracks him down in Egypt → reclaim Pasha throne, alliance with United States

• Military → Cross dessert with mercenary “army” to seize the city of Derna

  • 500 local arab mercenaries hired to attack Tripoli

  • 600 mile trek from Egypt to Durna

Capt. Presley O’Bannon and the U.S. Marines

• Battle of Derna (April 27th, 1805)

  • 3 Casualties – 1 US Marine killed overseas

  • First US flag raised on captured foreign soil by 4 PM

  • To pay respect – Marines carry the mumuk sword in ceremonial dress

Peace with Tripoli

• Yusuf Karmanli negotiates with US diplomat Tobias Leare

  • Americans evacuate Derna

  • Halting of Tribute payments

  • US pay tribute to free the crew of the Philadelphia

• Problem: Abandonment of Hamet despite Eaton’s promises

• Sets some principles that military actions may be successful but diplomatic means are not usually held up → leads to diplomats settling for a peace treaty

Conclusions for 1783-1805

• Federalist’s military plans were costly, but well administered

  • Still too costly for a new nation to uphold → posed a potential threat to democracy by politicizing the military 

• Anti-Federalist’s revisions dropped cost & created a broader purpose

  • Jefferson's policies focused on domestic issues only worked in a peace-time era

• Emerging threats growing around the world which requires the US to build military strength

  • Legitimized in the eyes of foreign powers.