Chapter 1-7: Introduction to Paleontology and History of the Field
Opening context: a new sauropod and the pace of discovery
Plachinosaurus canii described as a eusauropod (long-necked dinosaur) with more derived sauropod features; used as a springboard to discuss what counts as science and how new fossils are named.
The semester has seen up to around 27 dinosaurs named in a single term in some years; science continually adds new fossil taxa within the Dinosauria, but also across vertebrates, invertebrates, and plants.
There are ongoing papers and discoveries; many species are named each year; science is a moving target with new fossils and reclassifications.
A campus discussion board will host PDFs of primary literature—papers that name new species or describe fossils. This is not a test, but a resource to see how science is published and described.
Sometimes a dinosaur is named from a single bone based on distinctive features; the example shown illustrates that partial remains can still be diagnostic if they have key characters.
The lecture frames paleontology and science as a process, not just a collection of facts.
What is science and why communicate it?
Today’s third part of the course asks how we communicate science to non-specialists; publication and public engagement are essential steps in the scientific process.
Communicating science helps solve wicked problems: complex economic, political, and environmental challenges (e.g., climate change, coastal flooding in Florida or along the Virginia coast, epidemics).
In modern times, most Americans get news via the Internet, short video clips (e.g., TikTok), digital formats, and sometimes newspapers. Few have formal training in science or research.
Media literacy is critical: distinguishing real science from pseudoscience and sensationalized depictions.
Examples shown on TV (National Geographic, Animal Planet) illustrate how science can be presented with data, but also how it can mislead if not critically evaluated.
Mermaids, Bigfoot, and similar items sometimes appear in media without data to support them; real data exist for fossils and dinosaurs, but viewers may be misled by presentation alone.
The responsibility of scientists at Virginia Tech (a land‑grant institution) includes communicating science to the public and ensuring it is done with integrity; the Latin motto luprosim that I may serve underscores this mission.
Publication is the main formal channel for science: hypotheses, data, and analyses are presented in journals; peer review ensures quality and credibility.
Peer review acts as a check: other scientists with relevant expertise evaluate methods, data, and conclusions; rejection or revision may occur if standards aren’t met.
Science advances via repeatability (other researchers can repeat methods and obtain similar results) and falsifiability (hypotheses can be tested and potentially disproven).
Negative results are a valid and important part of science; they show what was not supported by data and help refine future work.
The final step of the scientific process is communicating results to the public through publication and other channels.
Reading assignment and discussion target
Read Conaker and Luger (2013) on how science is presented in the media and in the news; compare these portrayals to the actual papers and scientists’ statements.
Compare popular press articles about dinosaurs and extinct animals with the primary literature to evaluate accuracy and handling of testable science.
Consider how representation of science varies across outlets and what this means for public understanding.
Questions and the next focus
Any questions so far? Reminder: the main topic for today is the history of paleontology, preceded by an activity on what makes a good paleontologist.
We will take a brief break and then return to continue with the history of paleontology.
Before the break, complete the “Who are you?” and science discussion board prompts if you haven’t already; fill out the class survey to aid in course planning.
Break activity: what makes a good paleontologist?
Bring markers and form groups at tables; you’ll list factors that constitute a good paleontologist.
Prompt questions:
How are paleontologists depicted in movies and TV, and is that depiction accurate?
What do fieldwork logistics look like (travel, accommodation, gear, etc.)?
What are the financial realities of fieldwork (groceries, gear, travel, publication costs)?
What is open access, and why do journals charge fees to publish (and sometimes to make content open access)?
How does funding shape opportunities for students (e.g., grants enabling undergraduates to participate in field work)?
What personal qualities are required beyond technical skill (patience, adaptability, curiosity, persistence)?
How does media portrayal align or misalign with core scientific practices?
Open access, funding, and fieldwork realities
Open access: many journals require a fee to make a paper freely accessible; readers can download without paywall, but the author or funding source often covers the fee.
Financial support is crucial for fieldwork: a grant that covers housing, food, and stipends for undergrads can enable multiple students to participate in field seasons.
Fieldwork logistics include travel, transportation, and the high cost of food—bread and other staples are a surprisingly significant budget item.
Collaboration and teamwork are essential; field projects often require careful planning and coordination among scientists, students, and technicians.
Patience and careful handling of fragile fossils are critical; the goal is to preserve specimens for study while collecting enough data.
Adaptability and flexibility are key: changing sites, altering plans due to weather or access, and pivoting research questions as new data emerge.
The depiction of fieldwork in media sometimes emphasizes drama or romance rather than the steady, careful work of discovery and collection.
What is a fossil? Historical and cultural perspectives
Fossils are remains or traces of past life preserved in the geological record; this concept is broader than bones and includes plants, traces, and impressions.
Ancient cultures recognized fossils as evidence of former life; Greek philosophers noted shells implied bygone oceans; archaeological and artistic representations reflect fossil knowledge.
The distribution of fossil knowledge expanded with writing and literacy, enabling broader dissemination of discoveries beyond oral traditions.
Native American cultures often recognized fossils and used them in jewelry and burial contexts; oral traditions preserved these understandings, but broader dissemination was limited by the lack of written records.
Worldviews influence interpretation of fossils: some cultures viewed fossils as remnants of supernatural beings or as sacred ground artifacts; others embraced scientific explanations.
Fossils have sometimes been used as tools (e.g., fossils incorporated into arrowheads or spear points) rather than as mere curiosities.
Walter Leonardo da Vinci (early observer) and Nicholas Steno (late 16th–early 17th century) were pivotal in reframing fossils as evidence of ancient life rather than mythical remains.
Early contributors to paleontology and key ideas
Leonardo da Vinci: among the first to recognize that fossils were evidence of ancient life; included drawings and observations linking fossils to ancient organisms.
Nicholas Steno (Niels Stensen): studied rocks and fossils in the 1600s; formulated foundational ideas about the origin of fossils and rock formation; introduced the concept that rocks record Earth's history.
Key insight: fossils in sedimentary rocks reflect organisms that were buried as rocks formed.
The concept of law-like constraints in geology (Steno’s laws):
The horizontal deposition of sediments; rocks are laid down horizontally.
Superposition: deeper layers are older than surface layers; bottom is oldest, top is youngest.
The color stripes example in an Arizona landscape illustrates continuous correlation of rock layers across a terrain, allowing inference of layering and continuity even with gaps.
Georges Cuvier: often called the father of comparative anatomy and a foundational figure in paleontology; integrated folklore with scientific study to identify fossils and their relationships.
Worked with North American fossils and materials to interpret extinct forms; used comparative anatomy to assess relationships to living species (e.g., mammoth/mastodon, elephants).
Demonstrated that some fossils represent extinct taxa not found among living animals today, challenging prior assumptions of universal, unchanging life forms.
Mary Anning (here transcribed as Mary Annie): early female paleontologist from Lyme Regis, England; did fieldwork along dangerous cliffs and sold fossils to scientists who wrote up the findings.
Notable discoveries: Dimorphodon (first fossil of a pterosaur), Plesiosaurus, and ichthyosaur-related finds; contributed to early understanding of extinct reptiles and marine life.
Her work led to a lasting legacy (she is commemorated with a statue; her fossils are housed in the British Museum).
Extinction and revolutions of nature (Cuvier’s contributions): argued for the reality of extinct species and proposed the idea of revolutions in nature—burials and later re-emergence of life forms; introduced the concept of “lost worlds” and that life has risen and fallen across geologic time.
Passenger pigeon (Martha): last individual of the species, emblematic of recent extinctions and the historical development of conservation thinking.
Paleontology as a historical science and the fossil record
Paleontology is a historical science: it reconstructs past life using evidence preserved in rocks and fossils.
The fossil record shows a progression of life through geologic time, including extinct groups that have no direct modern equivalents.
The field has developed through integration of multiple disciplines: anatomy, geology, evolutionary biology, archaeology, anthropology, and more.
Early debates included catastrophism vs. gradualism/uniformitarianism; Cuvier argued for catastrophes in Earth’s history, leading to the recognition of extinction events and episodic turnover of fauna.
The concept of “pseudozoic life” and the appearance of an age with reptiles dominating land, sea, and air during the Mesozoic era — contrasted with modern mammal-dominated faunas.
The evolution of thought: from ancient mythic explanations to a robust, testable framework for interpreting fossils and reconstructing past environments.
The ethics and politics of fossil science and indigenous perspectives
The history of fossil collection is tied to colonialism: specimens were often transported to Europe by colonial powers, sometimes with limited consent from source communities.
Mistrust of scientists in some Native American and Indigenous communities stems from historical experiences and power imbalances; trust-building and ethical collaboration are essential today.
The way fossils are collected, studied, and shared (including who has access to samples and data) is shaped by ethical considerations and cultural respect.
Communicating science responsibly includes acknowledging diverse worldviews and ensuring that interpretations do not disrespect source communities.
The modern practice: science communication, media literacy, and ethics
The role of media in shaping public understanding of science is powerful but prone to sensationalism; readers must compare media reports with primary literature.
Open access and publication costs influence what research is accessible to students, educators, and the public; understanding these financial aspects is part of scientific literacy.
The public has a right to access science, but the process requires effort: reading papers, understanding methods, and evaluating evidence critically.
As scientists, we must strive for clear communication, avoiding jargon when possible, and providing context for data and conclusions.
Reading assignment reminder and next class plan
Read Conaker and Luger (2013) on science in the media and how paleontology is presented to the public.
Compare the popular press representation to the actual scientific literature; identify discrepancies and discuss why they occur.
For Thursday: we will finish the history of paleontology and continue exploring how past discoveries shaped current understanding.
Homework reminder: participate in the discussion boards (Who are you? What is science?) if you haven’t already; prepare to discuss the upcoming topics.
Quick reference: key terms and figures
Plachinosaurus canii: a newly named eusauropod; example used to illustrate naming and describing fossils.
Wicked problems: complex, multi-factor problems (e.g., climate change, epidemics) that require interdisciplinary approaches.
Peer review: evaluation by experts in the field before publication.
Repeatability: independent verification of results by other researchers.
Falsifiability: the possibility that a hypothesis can be proven false by data.
Open access: model where research is freely available to the public, often funded by authors or institutions.
Steno's laws (as presented in class): original horizontality; superposition (bottom older than top); continuity of layers; use to interpret stratigraphy across landscapes.
Dimorphodon: early pterosaur discovered by Mary Anning.
Plesiosaurus: marine reptile discovered by Mary Anning.
Atheosaurs: fossil group mentioned in Mary Anning's discoveries (per transcript).
Mosasaurus: marine reptile identified later from a fossil initially misinterpreted.
Charles or Georges Cuvier: pioneer of comparative anatomy and paleontology; argued for extinct species and use of fossils to infer evolutionary relationships.
Leonardo da Vinci: early advocate for fossils as evidence of ancient life; created observational drawings.
Nicholas Steno: foundational geologist and anatomist; described rock formation processes and fossil interpretation; formulated early stratigraphic principles.
Mary Annie (Mary Anning): early female paleontologist; key discoveries; faced gender barriers but laid groundwork for the field.
Passenger pigeon (Martha): symbol of recent extinction and historical changes in biodiversity.
Conaker and Luger (2013): paper on science and media; recommended reading for understanding science communication.