Chapter 1 ISS
Chapter 1: Foundations of Social Science
1. Aim of Social Science – Social science aims to study human behavior, relationships, and societies systematically. It looks for patterns, explanations, and predictions about how people interact.
2. Probability – In social science, probability is used to predict the likelihood of events or behaviors happening based on patterns and data. It helps researchers make educated guesses rather than absolute conclusions.
3. Epistemology– The study of knowledge—how we know what we know. It examines different ways of understanding the world (e.g., experience, reasoning, research). The science of knowing; systems of knowledge.
4. Methodology – The techniques and procedures used in research to gather and analyze data. This includes experiments, surveys, interviews, and observations.
5. Tradition and Authority – People often rely on tradition (what has always been believed) and authority (what experts say) to form knowledge. While useful, these can sometimes lead to misinformation.
6. Errors in Inquiry
- Inaccurate Observations – Misinterpreting or incorrectly remembering events.
- Overgeneralizations – Applying findings from a small group to everyone.
- Selective Observations – Focusing only on evidence that supports our beliefs.
- Illogical Reasoning – Drawing conclusions that don’t logically follow from the evidence.
7. Variables and Attributes
- Variable – Something that can change or vary (e.g., age, income, education level).
- Attribute- specific value or category of a variable, such as age, that is characteristic of a person or thing.
8. Independent vs. Dependent Variables
- Independent Variable – The cause or factor that influences something (e.g., study time).
- Dependent Variable – The effect or outcome influenced by the independent variable (e.g., test scores).
9. Idiographic vs. Nomothetic Explanations
- Idiographic – A detailed, in-depth explanation of a single event or person.
- Nomothetic – Broad, general explanations that apply to many cases.
10. Determinism vs. Agency
- Determinism– The idea that people’s actions are shaped by external forces (e.g., environment, culture).
- Agency – The belief that people have free will and make independent choices.
11. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
- Qualitative– Descriptive research using words, observations, and meanings (e.g., interviews, case studies).
- Quantitative– Research using numbers and statistics to measure patterns (e.g., surveys, experiments).