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Personality Theory Flashcards (Video Transcript)

Introduction

  • Transcript begins with a real-world contrast: Bill Clinton and his half-brother Roger Clinton, raised by the same people, took different paths. Uses this to motivate the study of personality and the internal forces shaping decisions.

  • Core question: What internal forces shape our decisions? How can personality psychology help answer it?

  • Learning objectives introduced:

    • Define personality

    • Describe early theories about personality development

What is Personality?

  • Personality refers to long-standing traits and patterns that propel individuals to consistently think, feel, and behave in specific ways.

  • Our personality makes us unique individuals; it tends to be long-term, stable, and not easily changed.

  • Etymology: The word “personality” comes from the Latin word persona, meaning a mask; historically, a mask represented or projected a trait of a character.

  • Reflection question: What characteristics describe your own personality?

Historical Perspectives on Personality

  • Ancient roots: Hippocrates proposed four temperaments tied to bodily humors:

    • Choleric: yellow bile from the liver (passionate, ambitious, bold)

    • Melancholic: black bile from the kidneys (reserved, anxious, unhappy)

    • Sanguine: red blood from the heart (joyful, eager, optimistic)

    • Phlegmatic: white phlegm from the lungs (calm, reliable, thoughtful)

    • These ideas were later extended by Galen, who linked disease and personality to humoral imbalances.

  • Medieval to early modern: Galen’s four temperaments remained influential for centuries.

  • 1780 phrenology: Franz Gall proposed that bumps on the skull reflect personality traits and underlying brain areas; used to infer languages, kindness, aggression, etc. Discredited as pseudoscience due to lack of empirical support.

  • Kant and Wundt:

    • Kant proposed trait words describing each temperament but believed categories were non-overlapping.

    • Wundt introduced a two-axis model: emotional vs. non-emotional and changeable vs. unchangeable.

  • Freud and the psychodynamic perspective (early 20th century): the first comprehensive theory of personality integrating unconscious drives and childhood experiences.

    • Freud's influence persisted through Neo-Freudians, who retained childhood influence but emphasized social/cultural factors over pure sexuality.

    • Other major perspectives emerged later: learning, humanistic, biological, evolutionary, and cultural.

Freud: Psychodynamic Perspective

  • Core idea: Unconscious drives, especially sex and aggression, shape personality. Childhood sexuality and experiences influence adult behavior.

  • Levels of consciousness (the iceberg analogy): only a small portion of our mind is conscious; the majority is unconscious and influences behavior.

    • Unconscious mind contains unacceptable urges; repression keeps them out of awareness.

    • Freudian slips (slips of the tongue) are seen as reflections of unconscious desires.

    • Approximate view from Freud: only about ~1/10 of the mind is conscious; the rest is unconscious. ext{Conscious}
      oughly 0.1 imes ext{total mind}

  • Structural model: id, ego, superego

    • Id: primitive drives, present from birth; operates on the pleasure principle (immediate gratification).

    • Ego: the rational self that balances id and superego within reality; operates on the reality principle.

    • Superego: internalized societal rules and morality; acts as conscience.

    • Dynamic: ego balances id’s desires with superego’s moral constraints; when imbalance occurs, anxiety arises.

  • Neurotic outcomes: an imbalance among id, ego, and superego can lead to neurosis (negative emotions, anxiety, unhealthy behaviors).

  • Defense mechanisms: unconscious tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety and protect the psyche; examples include repression, reaction formation, regression, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation.

    • Example scenario: a student (Joe) sublimates sexual tension by acting macho, making derogatory jokes about others; this is a form of defense mechanism use.

  • Defense mechanism examples:

    • Repression: pushing distressing memories from consciousness.

    • Reaction formation: expressing opposite feelings to unconscious impulses.

    • Regression: acting younger to cope with stress.

    • Projection: attributing own unacceptable feelings to others.

    • Rationalization, displacement, sublimation: other ways the mind distorts or diverts urges.

  • Psychosexual stages of development:

    • Oral (0-1 year): pleasure focused on the mouth; fixation can lead to oral traits (smoking, overeating, thumb-sucking).

    • Anal (1-3 years): toilet training; fixations can lead to anal-retentive (order, stinginess) or anal-expulsive (messiness) traits.

    • Phallic (3-6 years): genitals; Oedipus complex in boys; Electra complex in girls (originally proposed by Jung; Freud later revised stance). Castration anxiety in boys; identification with father.

    • Latency: sexual feelings dormant; focus on school, friendships, hobbies; consolidation of gender roles.

    • Genital: puberty onward; mature sexual interests; fixation unresolved can lead to issues in adulthood.

  • Controversies and developments:

    • Freud’s theories are controversial and not fully supported by modern research; however, he highlighted the importance of early childhood experiences and unconscious processes.

    • Later psychoanalysts expanded on social/cultural aspects (Neo-Freudians) and broadened emphasis beyond sexuality.

  • Electra complex: proposed by Carl Jung and discussed in the context of penis envy; Freud’s stance evolved, but the concept remains influential in some discussions.

Other Notable Early Theorists (Post-Freud)

  • Alfred Adler (Individual Psychology):

    • Break from Freud; focused on social motives and conscious rather than sexual motives.

    • Inferiority complex: deep feelings of worthlessness driving striving for superiority.

    • Emphasized social connections and three fundamental social tasks: occupational, societal/friendship, and love/romance.

    • Birth order effects: older siblings may become overachievers; youngest may be spoiled; middle child dynamics may influence personality. Evidence for these claims is mixed; research is inconclusive.

  • Erik Erikson (Psychosocial Theory):

    • Emphasized lifespan development; eight stages, each with a central conflict to resolve for healthy personality development.

  • Carl Jung (Analytical Psychology):

    • Split from Freud on two major points: sexuality is not the sole driver; adds the concept of the collective unconscious and archetypes.

    • Collective unconscious: universal, inherited patterns (archetypes) shared across cultures (e.g., hero, maiden, sage, trickster).

    • Extroversion vs. introversion: energy source differences; balance between them considered essential for self-realization.

    • Persona: the mask we present to the world; a compromise between our true self and social expectations.

    • Archetypes are potentially universal but modern research questions a strictly biological basis for archetypes; may emerge from experiences and culture.

  • Karen Horney (Psychoanalytic/cultural critique):

    • Rejected Freud’s penis envy as a universal female trait; instead argued social/cultural factors explain gender differences.

    • Emphasized basic anxiety from unmet needs and proposed three neurotic coping styles: moving toward people (need for affection), moving against people (aggression, dominance), moving away from people (detachment).

    • These coping styles can become rigid and neurotic if overused.

The Learning Perspectives on Personality

  • Shift from internal drives to observable behavior and environmental reinforcements.

  • Behavioral perspective (Skinner): personality is shaped by environment; stable patterns arise from learned response tendencies; personality can change across the lifespan with changes in reinforcement structures.

    • Example: Greta’s speeding behavior declines after marriage and children due to changed reinforcement/punishment contexts.

  • Social Cognitive Perspective (Bandura): adds cognition to learning; emphasizes reciprocal determinism, observational learning, and self-efficacy.

    • Reciprocal determinism: behavior, cognitive processes, and environment all influence each other.

    • Observational learning: learning by watching models and their consequences; imitation depends on whether the model is reinforced or punished.

    • Self-efficacy: belief in one’s own abilities to achieve goals; high self-efficacy leads to more persistence and resilience; low self-efficacy can limit challenge engagement.

    • Example: someone with high self-efficacy may tackle a challenging task with confidence; someone with low self-efficacy may avoid it.

  • Locus of Control (Rotter): internal vs. external control of outcomes.

    • Internal locus: outcomes result from one’s own efforts; associated with better academic performance, independence, and health.

    • External locus: outcomes result from luck, fate, or other people; associated with poorer adjustment in some domains.

  • Walter Mischel and the Person-Situation Debate: concluded that behavior varies across situations more than per trait alone, though consistency exists within similar situations and across time in equivalent contexts.

    • Marshmallow test (Self-regulation): delay of gratification predicts later life outcomes; higher self-control associated with better academic achievement, healthier relationships, and fewer problems; later research recognizes situational factors moderate these associations.

    • Concept of self-regulation (willpower): goal-directed control using internal/external feedback to maximize goal attainment.

    • Conclusion: both situational factors and personal dispositions shape behavior; humans are situation processors.

The Humanistic Perspective

  • Third force in psychology, reacting to psychoanalytic and behaviorist extremes.

  • Emphasizes growth, self-actualization, and subjective experience.

  • Abraham Maslow:

    • Hierarchy of needs: from basic physiological needs to safety, love/belonging, esteem, and self-actualization at the top.

    • Self-actualization: realizing one’s fullest potential; people who reach this level tend to be open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, self-accepting.

  • Carl Rogers:

    • Self-concept: thoughts and feelings about oneself; the real self vs. ideal self.

    • Congruence: similarity between real self and ideal self; high congruence linked to higher self-worth and healthier functioning.

    • Unconditional positive regard: acceptance that facilitates growth; lack of congruence can lead to maladjustment.

    • Your answers to “Who am I?” reflect self-concept; congruence fosters healthy development.

Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives on Personality

  • Genetic and physiological bases for personality:

    • Minnesota Twin Study (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory context): identical twins raised apart or together show substantial similarity in some traits; suggests heritability for certain traits.

    • Heritability (h^2): proportion of observed variation in a population attributable to genetics; traits showing h^2 > 0.5 indicate strong genetic influence for those traits.

    • Important caveat: traits are polygenic (involve many genes) and also shaped by epigenetic factors and environment.

  • Temperament as a biologically-based set of tendencies apparent early in life; Thomas and Chess identified three main temperaments: easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up.

    • Modern view emphasizes two key temperament dimensions: reactivity and self-regulation; environmental factors influence expression.

  • Evolutionary perspective:

    • Life history theory: how people allocate time and energy to growth, reproduction, and parenting.

    • Costly signaling theory: how traits may signal mate quality or social status honestly or deceptively.

  • Cross-cultural and genetic variation:

    • Twin studies, cross-cultural research show both universal patterns and cultural differences in personality traits.

Trait Theories of Personality

  • Trait theorists describe personality in terms of relatively stable traits present across people.

  • Allport (1930s): trait taxonomy with three levels:

    • Cardinal traits: dominant traits that shape entire personality (rare).

    • Central (central) traits: basic building blocks of personality (e.g., loyalty, kindness).

    • Secondary traits: less obvious, context-specific preferences and attitudes.

  • Raymond Cattell (1957): reduced trait list to 16 factors (16PF):

    • Dimensions include warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, tension.

    • Assessment uses a continuum for each trait (not simply present/absent).

  • Hans and Sybil Eysenck: two-factor model (later three-factor)

    • Core dimensions: Extraversion–Introversion; Neuroticism–Stability.

    • Later added a third dimension: Psychoticism–Superego control (impulse control vs. anti-social tendencies).

    • Eysenck’s model has been critiqued for being too narrow; nonetheless influential.

  • Big Five (Five Factor Model): the dominant contemporary framework

    • Five core factors: Openness to Experience (O), Conscientiousness (C), Extraversion (E), Agreeableness (A), Neuroticism (N).

    • Mnemonic: OCEAN or CANOE (O, C, E, A, N).

    • Each trait exists on a continuum; most people score somewhere in the middle.

    • Cross-cultural stability: traits exist across cultures and ethnicities; likely have biological and genetic components.

    • Longevity of traits: some changes across lifespan; conscientiousness and agreeableness tend to increase with age, while neuroticism and sometimes extraversion decline slightly with age.

  • HEXACO model (an alternative model): Honesty-Humility, Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Openness to experience.

  • Cross-cultural considerations:

    • Individualist cultures (e.g., US, Western Europe) emphasize independence and personal achievement; collectivist cultures emphasize social harmony and group needs.

    • Culture can influence how traits manifest and how tests are interpreted; some inventories may require culturally specific adaptations.

    • Regional personality patterns in the US identified through large samples (Rentfro et al., 2013): three clusters with different profiles (Upper Midwest/Deep South; West; Northeast) and associations with openness/conscientiousness, stress, and political leanings.

  • Cross-cultural approaches to studying personality:

    • Cultural comparative approach: tests Western theories in other cultures; aims for generalizability.

    • Indigenous approach: develop culture-specific measures that reflect local constructs.

    • Combined approach: integrates Western and indigenous methods to capture universal and culture-specific traits.

Culture and Personality

  • Culture shapes personality through language, socialization, and modeling of culturally appropriate behaviors.

  • Universal vs. culture-specific dimensions:

    • Some traits show cross-cultural validity (Big Five broadly observed), but the expression and importance of traits can vary by culture.

  • Individualist vs. collectivist cultures influence the emphasis on personal vs. group-related traits.

  • Examples:

    • Yang (2006) found more personally oriented traits in individualist cultures and more socially oriented traits in collectivist cultures.

    • Cross-cultural test validity issues: tests like Eysenck’s inventory may function differently in collectivist settings; test translation and cultural context matter.

  • Cross-cultural testing in minority populations: culturally relevant tests (e.g., Native American contexts) require careful interpretation and culture-specific norms.

Approaches to Studying Personality in a Cultural Context

  • Three main approaches:

    • Cultural comparative approach: tests Western theories in other cultures to examine universality.

    • Indigenous approach: builds instruments grounded in the culture’s own constructs.

    • Combined approach: uses both Western and indigenous insights to understand universal and cultural variations.

Personality Assessment: Methods and Applications

  • Self-report inventories (objective tests):

    • Usually use Likert-type scales (one to five) and multiple-choice items.

    • Pros: easy to administer, cost-effective.

    • Cons: susceptible to social desirability bias and intentional distortion.

    • Example usage: employment screening, clinical assessment, counseling.

  • Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): a widely used clinical inventory

    • First published in 1943; MMPI-2 updated in 1989.

    • MMPI-2-RF updated version (2008) with 338 items; shorter and more efficient.

    • Administration: largely computer-based in modern practice; takes about 1–2 hours for MMPI-2; 20–35 minutes for MMPI-2-RF.

    • Scales in MMPI-2: a clinical profile consists of 10 main scales: Hypochondriasis (Hs), Depression (D), Hysteria (Hy), Psychopathic Deviate (Pd), Social Introversion (Si), Masculinity-Femininity (Mf), Paranoia (Pa), Psychasthenia (Pt), Schizophrenia (Sc), Hypomania (Ma).

    • MMPI-2 also includes an alcoholism risk scale (or related validity indicators) and validity scales such as the Lie scale (L) to detect faking good/bad and other response biases.

    • MMPI-2RF feature: three validity/interpretive scales with updated structure for reliability and efficiency.

    • Uses: clinical diagnosis, occupational screening (e.g., law enforcement), counseling, custody evaluations.

    • Reliability and validity concepts apply: test-retest reliability, construct validity, criterion validity, and the risk of bias with self-reports.

  • Projective tests (strategies to access unconscious processes):

    • Based on defense mechanisms and the assumption that ambiguous stimuli elicit projection of internal states.

    • Rorschach Inkblot Test (1921): clients describe what they see in a series of inkblots; standardized with Exner scoring system to assess depression, psychosis, anxiety, etc.

    • Thematic Apperception Test (TAT, 1930s): clients tell stories about ambiguous pictures; aims to reveal social world, hopes, fears, goals; storytelling reduces resistance to disclosure; standardization is weak and validity/reliability vary.

    • Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (RISB, 1950): 40 incomplete sentences; quick completions reveal personal concerns and adjustment issues; used for college/career counseling.

    • Contemporized Theme Concerning Black’s Test (CTCB, Williams, 1972): culturally relevant adaptation for African Americans; increases story length and identification.

    • The TEMIS (Tell Me a Story): culturally tailored to minority groups (e.g., Hispanic youths).

    • Issues: traditional projective tests have biases in cross-cultural contexts; standardization challenges; modern practice includes more culturally sensitive alternatives.

  • Cross-cultural considerations in testing:

    • Test bias and cultural bias have limited usefulness in diverse populations when using tests developed in one culture.

    • Culturally relevant test development (CTCB, TEMIS) improves interpretive validity for minority groups.

Summary and Practical Implications

  • Personality theories provide frameworks to understand why people differ in thought, feeling, and behavior.

  • Classic theories (Freud, Jung, Adler, Horney) offer insights into early development, unconscious processes, archetypes, and social factors.

  • Learning and cognitive approaches emphasize how environment, reinforcement, observational learning, and self-efficacy shape behavior and personality across the lifespan.

  • Humanistic theories emphasize self-actualization, congruence, and unconditional positive regard as routes to healthy personality.

  • Biological and evolutionary perspectives highlight genetic influences and adaptive advantages of certain traits, while temperament reflects early biologically-based tendencies.

  • Trait theories (Big Five, HEXACO) provide stable dimensions to describe personality across cultures, with evidence for universal patterns but culture-specific expressions.

  • Cross-cultural research underscores the role of culture in shaping personality and cautions against universal generalizations; culturally grounded assessment improves validity.

  • Personality assessment blends self-reports and projective methods, each with strengths and limitations; practical use in clinical, organizational, and forensic settings requires awareness of biases and culture-specific factors.

Key Formulas and Numerical References (LaTeX)

  • Freudian iceberg approximation (levels of consciousness): approximately ext{conscious mind}
    ightarrow rac{1}{10} ext{ of total mind} and the rest is unconscious.

  • Big Five factors (OCEAN) as a model: O= ext{Openness},\nC= ext{Conscientiousness},
    E= ext{Extraversion},
    A= ext{Agreeableness},
    N= ext{Neuroticism}. A mnemonic: ext{OCEAN}.

  • Locus of control continuum: internal vs external control; no single numeric formula, but conceptually with outcomes linked to personal effort vs. luck.

  • Heritability concept (example): if a trait shows heritability h^2 > 0.5, genetics account for more than half of the observed variation in that trait within a population.

  • Minnesota Twin Study (conceptual): identical twins raised apart show substantial similarity on several traits, implying genetic influence; exact numeric values vary by trait.