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Chapter 1

1.1 The art of doing ethics.

Ethics is finding out what is right or wrong depending on the situation.
The response to questions tells us about our values and beliefs and reflects on how we see the world.
Variables such as the importance we attach to human life and religious beliefs also affect our responses.
In ethics you assess what is the right or wrong, good or bad responses to issues that are personal, community or global.
No necessarily correct answer
Considering how outside influences impact our response.
By analysing and assessing other arguments we can determine one’s own stance

Ethics is how we figure out what is right or wrong in a situation or circumstance. Our responses are representative of our values, while our answers are dependent on our beliefs, religious beliefs, how we were raised and how we view issues globally, locally, and personally. We look at other opinions about the ethical questions posed and their key points, and we find our own stance through agreeing to ideas others have posed.

1.2 What are ethical issues?

Ethical issues challenge us to decide what is right and wrong behaviour on the personal, local, and global scale.
Ethical issues are competing arguments about what is the right and wrong behaviour.
Some problems concern right or wrong but are not ethical as there is not a large enough opposing argument (e.g. Child abuse)
There needs to be a large enough spectrum of opinions to form an ethical issue (e.g. Euthanasia)

Ethical issues are questions posed that challenge us to decide what the right and wrong behaviour in a circumstance is. Typically, ethical issues are based around touchy subjects such as death because they are often avoided leading to grey moral areas. There must be competing arguments about the right and wrong behaviour otherwise it would a generally accepted opinion. Ethical issues can affect the personal, communital and global scale.

1.3 Ethics and morality: what’s the difference?

Morality is the ‘codes’ we hold about right and good behaviour.
Everyone has a moral code based on external influences such as family and religion.
Communities have moral codes but are harder to pinpoint due to larger external influences.
Personal morality strongly influences our response to ethical issues.
Morality effects how we think about ethical issues, but they are not the same

Morality is how we determine what we believe the right behaviour in an ethical issue is. Our moral codes are influenced by external sources such as family, society, and religion. Our personal morality is how we form a response to ethical issues, those who is morally opposed to ideas with will then have similar opposition to ethical issues attached.

1.4 Approaches to ethics: Utilitarianism

The right response is the one that is most useful in promoting the common good even if it may harm a minority.
Strengths – Appears to protect the common good.
Weaknesses – May condone an action such as murder if it were seen to benefit the common good.
Sample Argument

A utilitarian would say that a school counsellor should disclose confidential information about a student if…

A utilitarian would say that a school counsellor should disclose confidential information about a student if the student was in harm’s way or intended to harm others. Whilst this would likely be unfavoured for the student, by the counsellor disclosing the confidential information to others they can prevent harm from occurring.

Utilitarianism is the theory that the right response to an issue is the one that is going to promote the most common good, even though it may harm a minority. Strengths are found in its ability to consistently choose what benefits the most people. However, it finds weakness in potentially condoning negative actions in order to ensure the common good, such a torturing a terrorist to get information.

1.5 Approaches to ethics: Subjectivism

An individual should have the right to make their own decisions regardless of the outcome without the interference of others.
External authority doesn’t apply (law, societal standards) only the individual’s own thoughts and feelings are accounted for.
Can be perceived as selfish as there is a lack of communital opinion.
Strengths – Protects the individual’s right to make freedom of choice.
Weaknesses – Ignores the community dimension of decision-making.
Sample argument

A subjectivist would say that the first and most important thing to consider when responding to an ethical issue is…

A subjectivist might reply that the most important thing to consider when responding to an ethical issue is what is their true opinion if there wasn’t laws or societal expectations placed on them. Many people find that when responding to an ethical issue that they don’t let their true opinion exist because they are afraid of what society may potentially do to them for not following the general opinion, so a subjectivist would want to remove those restraints before responding in order to execute exactly what they think is right.

Subjectivism is the theory where individualism rises- one should have the right to make their own decisions irrespective of other people's inputs and should only be consulted by the individual’s thoughts and ideas. Strength lies in individuality and protecting the freedom of choice. However it is weak in community strength, there would be little consensus reached, and governmental decisions would be perceived as negative by a large majority.

1.6 Approaches to ethics: Situation ethics

Nothing is wrong except an action that is unloving.
If an action is out of love, then they shouldn’t be restrained by moral code
Love is an interpretive concept, making personal opinion key
Strengths – Sees each situation as unique
Weaknesses – Its basis (love) can be interpreted however people wish
Sample argument

A situation ethicist would say that in some cases allowing severely disabled babies to die is…

A situation ethicist might say that allowing severely disabled babies to die is unethical, as allowing them to die would require some level of unlovingness which is what they oppose. However, some might not be opposed to it as letting the child suffer on would also be considered unloving. I think it might depend on the disability and the potential of their future. If a child was severely disabled but still had an average human lifespan letting them die would be considered murder which is very unloving.

Situation ethics is based on love in order to determine what is right and wrong. They believe that if an action is done out of love, then it shouldn’t be held against law or societal code. A strength is that it sees each situation as unique, however weaknesses lie in loves ambiguous nature, love is different for everybody which could then be possibly abused. Those who murder someone could claim it was out of love, and there wouldn’t be legal repercussions because why would the judge get to decide what is their definition of love is.

1.7 Approaches to ethics: Relativism

Right and wrong isn’t the same for everyone because of culture and upbringing.
They don’t make judgements about what is right or wrong for everyone.
Because different choices arise from the experiences of particular cultures and contexts, we cannot judge if one choice is better than another.
Strengths – Takes into account the situation of the culture from which the decision arises.
Weaknesses – May condone practises that are abhorrent to many.
Sample argument

A relativist could condone the use of flogging as a punishment in some countries because…

A relativist could condone the use of flogging as a punishment in some countries as they realise that may be a societal norm or holds cultural/contextual importance for that country. Whilst the use of violence as a punishment in the relativist’s country may be seen as a poor action, they don’t know what the other culture’s opinion on it.

Relativism is the idea that there cannot be a definitive ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer to an ethical question because of how culture and upbringing affects our moral code. They don’t make judgments on other’s actions because while the actions might not fall into their moral code, because of the others different upbringing they might perceive their action as right. If they were to make judgments about other people’s actions that were cultivated by their own culture, it would be saying that one culture is wrong and another is right, which leads into racism. It is strong because it takes into account the external factors that led into an action; however it may condone actions that many find to be wrong.

1.8 Approaches to ethics: Nihilism

Based on the perception that life has no meaning
No individual action makes a difference.
All decisions arise merely from emotional or social needs rather than from moral code.
Life is meaningless, there is no point in having rules.
Strengths – Provides solidarity for those who see life as absurd.
Weaknesses – Denies any goodness in human life; and is built on pessimism.
Sample argument

A nihilist would find it pointless to discuss ethics because…

A nihilist would find it pointless to discuss ethics because they do not believe that a singular decision has any impact on the world, so it would be just as effective for them to not discuss ethics at all. They also cannot enjoy things in life such as trivially squabbling with people.

Nihilism is the belief that is based on the view of life having no meaning. Those who follow nihilism believe that there is no individual action or question that has a difference, and that all decisions are solely for our emotional or social needs.

1.9 The Catholic approach to ethics

Objective moral values, some actions are right or wrong irrespective of the view held by any individual.
Natural law, basic values known by everyone regarding of religion through use of human reason and goodwill.
Everyone can tell the different between good and bad for some circumstances (e.g. rape…child abuse), Catholicism says this is the presence of God in each other
There are object standards of morality

The Catholic approach to ethics is based around the idea that as humans, we can all recognise that some actions are good or bad such as rape, murder of the innocent, helping those in need and being kind. These are called ‘natural laws’, shared amongst everyone irrespective of whether someone believes in God or not. The Catholic Church attributes these natural laws to the presence of God in each and every one of us.

1.10 Approaches to ethics: Natural law

Natural law is an innate knowledge of right and wrong that is part of being human.
Seen as a universal thing.
‘Good should be done and promoted and evil avoided’.
In The Ten Commandments natural law tells us the moral requirement of loving God and our neighbour.
Laws should be derived from natural law

Natural law is the universally shared human knowledge of right and wrong actions. The idea that ‘good should be done and promoted and evil avoided’ has been found all through out humanity, referenced as far back as the Ten Commandments telling us the moral values that we should love God and love thy neighbour. The laws we set should have basis in natural law and should be upheld so.

1.11 Ten Principles of Catholic ethical behaviour

God exists -- God is the creator of all and loves all of his creation
Human beings have been created in the image of God – Humans are like God, made in God’s image (Genesis 1:26), reflect the goodness of God
People naturally know what is right through the use of their intelligence – Humans are able to think about their experience and figure out what is good and evil using the ‘law written on their hearts’ (Gaudium et Spes, 16)
Humans are capable of sin – Free will gives us choice of good or sin, many pick sin as St Paul refers to ‘I can will what is right, but I cannot do it, for I do not do the good that I want but the evil I do not want is what I do.’ (Romans 7:18-19)
In Christ, God has restored the fullness of life to all people. (Redemption) – Jesus gained us the forgiveness of God when he died, reconciliation with God freed us of sin.
Jesus showed people what it is to be fully human (Revelation) – In Jesus’ life, death and resurrection, God showed what it is like to be fully human.
Christ gave an example of how to live – Basis of Catholic ethics is Christ’s sinlessness, showing a model of how we should live our lives
The Christian life is one of faith, hope and love. – Catholics see a life lived in faith in Jesus, and we try to conduct our lives in ways that use the three virtues.
Christ taught the law of love – Jesus said love is a staple in the catholic tradition, ‘I give you a new commandment that you love one another. Just as I have loved you, you also should love one another. By this everyone will know that you are my disciples if you have love for one another.’ (John 13:34)
The Church teaches about moral and ethical issues – Catholic teaching on ethical issues developed through reflection on the life and teaching of Christ

Summary of Ethics and Approaches

Chapter 1: The Art of Doing Ethics

Ethics involves determining right and wrong in various situations, reflecting personal values and beliefs, influenced by external factors.
Ethical Issues arise when we must decide right vs. wrong behavior, needing competing arguments to qualify as ethical.
Morality differs from ethics; it encompasses personal codes of right/wrong, shaped by family, religion, and societal norms.

Approaches to Ethics:

Utilitarianism: Focuses on actions that promote the common good, even if it may harm a minority.
- Strengths: Benefits the largest number.
- Weaknesses: Can justify harmful actions.
Subjectivism: Advocates individual freedom of choice without external standards.
- Strengths: Upholds individual rights.
- Weaknesses: Lacks community consideration.
Situation Ethics: Judgments should be based on love, interpreting it personally.
- Strengths: Unique view of each situation.
- Weaknesses: Love's ambiguity can lead to misuse.
Relativism: Asserts ethical perspectives vary across cultures, with no absolute right or wrong.
- Strengths: Acknowledges cultural context.
- Weaknesses: May endorse intolerable practices.
Nihilism: Views life as meaningless, diminishing the value of ethical discussions.
- Strengths: Solidarity for those who find life absurd.
- Weaknesses: Neglects any goodness in life.
Catholic Ethics: Believes in objective moral values, and that natural law underlies universal moral truth.
Natural Law: Inherent understanding of good and evil guiding moral laws.

Catholic Ethical Behavior Principles

Upholding universal moral truths based on God’s image in humanity, the capacity for sin, and the necessity of faith, love, and adherence to natural law.