skeleton

Humerus:
- The main bone of the arm, connects the shoulder joint to the elbow.

Radius:
- Positioned on the lateral side of the forearm; crucial for forearm rotation (e.g., supination vs. pronation).
Ulna:
- Located on the medial side; known for the elbow bump (olecranon process).

Carpals:
- A set of 8 bones that form the wrist.
- Bones Included:
- Trapezium
- Trapezoid
- Capitate
- Hamate
- Scaphoid
- Lunate
- Triquetrum
- Pisiform.
Metacarpals:
- 5 bones forming the intermediate part of the hand, constituting the palm.
- Correlates to the visible parts of the hand.
Phalanges:
- 14 bones per hand; each digit has 3 phalanges except for the thumb (only has 2).

Femur:
- The longest and strongest bone in the body; connects to the hip joint.
Patella:
- The kneecap located within the quadriceps femoris muscle; protects the knee joint.

Tibia:
- The larger weight-bearing bone located in the lower leg; crucial for support and locomotion.
Fibula:
- A smaller bone providing lateral support and stability to the leg.

Tarsals:
- 7 bones that constitute the ankle.
- Bones Included:
- Calcaneus
- Talus
- Navicular
- Cuboid
- Lateral cuneiform
- Medial cuneiform
- Intermediate cuneiform.
Metatarsals:
- A set of 5 bones found in the foot, connecting to the toes.
Phalanges:
- Total of 14 per foot, structured similarly to those in the hand.

Types of Bone:
- Long Bone (e.g., Femur)
- Short Bone (e.g., Carpals)
- Flat Bone (e.g., Scapula)
- Irregular Bone (e.g., Vertebrae)
- Sesamoid Bone (e.g., Patella).
Specific Bones:
- Humerus: Long bone.
- Vertebrae: Irregular bone.
- Carpals: Short bone.
Carpal Bones Count: 8 in total.
Tarsal Bones Count: 7 in total.
Long Bone Parts:
- Diaphysis (shaft)
- Epiphysis (ends)
- Metaphysis (growth plate).
Bone Marrow Location: Found within the medullary cavity of long bones.

In forensic pathology, inferring height from long bones can assist in victim identification.
Factors influencing estimation include sex and race.
Measurements include:
- Radius: Measure from wrist to elbow.
- Humerus: Measure from elbow to shoulder.
- Femur: Measure from hip to knee.

For Males:
- Height = (Length of Radius x 3.3) + 34
- Height = (Length of Humerus x 2.9)
- Height = (Length of Femur x 1.9)
For Females:
- Height = (Length of Radius x 3.3) + 32
- Height = (Length of Humerus x 2.8)
- Height = (Length of Femur x 2.0) + 28.7

The formula to determine the percent error for height calculations is:
- Percent Error =
  $\frac{(Calculated Height - Measured Height)}{Measured Height} \times 100$
Example calculation: (60 - 65) x 100 = -7.69% Error.

Osteoarthritis:
- Causes or Risk Factors:
- Aging
- Obesity
- Previous joint injuries.
- Symptoms:
- Joint pain
- Stiffness
- Loss of flexibility.
- Treatment Options:
- Physical therapy
- Pain relievers
- Surgery if severe.
- Future Projections:
- Increase in osteoarthritis diagnoses projected for 2030 compared to 2005.
Osteogenesis Imperfecta:
- Causes or Risk Factors:
- Genetic mutation
- Family history
- Type of collagen deficiency.
- Symptoms:
- Fragile bones
- Frequent fractures
- Blue sclera.
- Treatment Options:
- Medications to strengthen bones
- Physical therapy
- Surgery for severe cases.
- Types:
- Type II (most severe, often lethal).
Osteosarcoma:
- Causes or Risk Factors:
- Genetic predisposition
- Previous radiation therapy
- Rapid bone growth periods.
- Symptoms:
- Persistent pain in bones
- Swelling
- Fractures without trauma.
- Treatment Options:
- Surgery
- Chemotherapy
- Radiation.
Osteomyelitis:
- Causes or Risk Factors:
- Bacterial infection
- Open fractures
- Chronic medical conditions.
- Symptoms:
- Fever
- Pain in the affected bone
- Swelling/redness.
- Treatment Options:
- Antibiotics
- Surgery to remove infected tissue.
- Most common site: Long bones.
Paget's Disease:
- Causes or Risk Factors:
- Genetic factors
- Age-related changes
- Hormonal imbalances.
- Symptoms:
- Bone pain
- Deformities
- Increased fracture risk.
- Treatment Options:
- Medications (bisphosphonates)
- Pain relievers
- Physical therapy.