Notes on Early English Colonization and the Atlantic World (1492-1620s)
European Motives, Religion, and Early Atlantic Colonization
Origins and competing claims in the late 15th
–early 16th centuriesThe Spanish and Portuguese dominated exploration in the early modern period; the Pope effectively split non
‑Christian lands between them, limiting claims for England and France (the lecture notes phrase it as a papal division of the world between Portugal and Spain).England and France were not strong naval powers yet and faced a political-religious landscape where Catholic Spain and Portugal had the upper hand in setting overseas policy and securing routes.
The initial English goal in the Atlantic era was to find a shorter, faster route to Southeast Asia via the Americas after Columbus’ voyage; the Northwest Passage represented a speculative alternative to access spice/market routes.
Mercantilism as the driving doctrine for English expansion
Mercantilism: an economic practice aiming for a favorable trade balance—export more than you import and control the production of key goods.
England sought to control land and resources that produced cash crops (e.g., tobacco, later cotton) to export to Europe and other markets, reducing dependence on rivals.
The rationale: by controlling raw materials (tobacco, rice, cotton, sugar, wool, etc.), England could process them domestically and sell finished goods, avoiding paying foreign powers for these commodities.
Geographic emphasis: English expansion aimed to acquire territories that yielded valuable crops and resources across the globe (North America, Africa, parts of Asia, and Australia), while keeping other parts of the empire from industrializing and competing with England.
England’s northern location relative to its colonies meant shorter growing seasons and a focus on cash crops like wool early on; wool and other exports supported the domestic economy and labor systems (including slavery and indentured servitude) as engines of growth.
The Protestant Reformation and the English church
Reformation personalities: German reformer Martin Luther and French/Swiss reformer John Calvin influenced religious reform movements; the term Huguenots refers to French Calvinists.
These French Protestants, followers of John Calvin's theology, faced persecution in Catholic France. The Edict of Nantes (1598) granted them a degree of religious freedom, but its later revocation (1685) led to many fleeing France, often seeking refuge in other Protestant European countries or English colonies, as their migration to New France was strictly limited by French law.
England’s break with Rome: Henry VIII sought an annulment/divorce from Catherine of Aragon (a Spanish princess), which the Catholic Church refused; the political-religious conflict led to the creation of the Church of England (Anglican Church) with the king as its head.
The English church remained outwardly similar in ritual to Catholicism for some time, but it marked a shift in allegiance and political power toward the monarchy.
Elizabeth I’s reign solidified the Anglican Church, and Puritans emerged seeking to purify church practices closer to what they believed was the New Testament model.
Puritans vs Separatists:
Puritans wanted to reform the Church of England from within (could still worship in Anglican settings in some cases).
Separatists (radical Puritans) wanted to split from the Church of England and form independent congregations; many later left England for religious freedom in North America.
Early English North American attempts and the Roanoke saga
Roanoke Colony (1587): Walter Raleigh led attempts to establish a settlement off the coast of present-day North Carolina.
A failed or abandoned colony: by 1590, the settlers disappeared; you can see a local legend in the Croatoan inscription, but the fate of the Roanoke colonists remains a mystery.
The Spanish Armada (1588) shifted naval power balance; English victory boosted England’s confidence to pursue overseas expansion.
The Armada’s failure reshaped European power dynamics and helped set the stage for later English expansion in the Americas.
Jamestown and the Virginia Company (early 17th century)
1607: Jamestown founded by the Virginia Company, under King James I’s auspices; it was the first permanent English settlement in North America.
The initial expedition: about 144 men, with 40 deaths by the time they reached Jamestown; only \sim104 remained as they began settlement.
Environment and relations with Indigenous groups: the Powhatan Confederacy controlled the area and demanded crop shares; English colonists struggled with farming, climate, disease (mosquito-borne malaria), and supply shortages.
John Smith (mercenary) helped stabilize the colony with a “you don’t work, you don’t eat” discipline and by leveraging relationships with Indigenous groups.
Tobacco becomes the colony’s key cash crop, providing the economic basis for expansion and self-sufficiency; no significant find of gold/silver as hoped.
The headright system emerges as a means to attract settlers (and their families) by offering land incentives.
The headright system and indentured servitude
1610 onward: headright system offers 50 acres of land per person whose passage is paid; households with multiple members (e.g., couple plus children and servants) could secure large tracts (e.g., 400 acres for a family of eight).
Purpose: attract families and sustained settlement rather than single men; lay the foundation for agricultural economies and colonial communities.
Indentured servitude: in early Virginia, many Europeans (notably English and Irish) came as indentured servants for a set term (roughly 4–7 years) in exchange for passage and the possibility of land after freedom.
By 1619, a shift occurs: a ship arrives with a shipment of around 100 women (to promote marriage and family formation) and artisans (carpenters) to build infrastructure; this year also marks the arrival of the first African slaves via a Dutch trading ship. The system will gradually shift from indentured servitude to racial slavery in later decades as the economics and law develop.
First Africans in Virginia: the 1619 arrival marks the beginning of African slavery in English North America, but initial conditions treated many as indentured servants; the price of enslaved labor increased over time, reinforcing a transition toward lifelong slavery.
1624 population and mortality: by 1624, about \sim8{,}500 colonists had moved to Virginia, with roughly 80%
died by that time, illustrating the harsh mortality environment (disease, famine, conflict).Despite the hardships, tobacco became a dominant export and the engine of economic growth for Virginia; this reinforced the colony’s emphasis on land and labor intensification.
Pocahontas, John Smith, and the Powhatan dynamic
Pocahontas became a symbolic figure in colonial narratives, often depicted in popular culture as a romance with John Smith, though historical accuracy is debated.
In reality, Smith’s leadership relied on coercion and strategic use of Powhatan diplomacy to secure survival; his captivity and alliance-building played a role in the colony’s early viability.
Pocahontas converted to Christianity (adopting the name Rebecca) and married John Rolfe, a tobacco planter; she traveled to England but died soon after returning to Virginia.
The Powhatan Confederacy demanded tribute and crops from the English settlers, shaping the early economic relationships and periodic violence in the region.
The Plymouth Colony and the Massachusetts Bay Colony
Plymouth (1620): a Separatist or Puritan group left England seeking religious freedom and settled at Plymouth Rock after drafting the Mayflower Compact—an early governing document establishing self-government and a social contract among settlers.
The Mayflower Compact represented a key moment in the development of English colonial self-government and influenced later democratic practices in North America.
The first harsh winter (the “starving time”) around 1620–1621 took a heavy toll; roughly 60 of the original \sim102 colonists survived the winter.
The Narragansett and other Indigenous groups assisted the Plymouth settlers in farming and survival, teaching them to grow crops and build canoes; the relationship was mixed and varied over time.
1621 Thanksgiving: a notable early harvest feast with the Narragansett people; literacy, governance, and diplomacy began to shape the colony’s development.
Massachusetts Bay Company (1630): John Winthrop led a larger migration (about 1{,}000 settlers on 17 ships) to establish the Massachusetts Bay Colony near Plymouth, with a stronger emphasis on religious purity and communal governance.
Cambridge and Boston: towns formed around the Massachusetts Bay Colony; institutions such as Harvard (1636) and MIT (modern reference) emerged in the same general region, highlighting the emphasis on education.
The Massachusetts Bay Colony represents a more successful expansion of English settlement, with a larger and more durable population than Plymouth.
The Dutch and New Netherland
The Dutch (The Netherlands) pursued commercial trade with a relatively tolerant approach to religion, attracting various religious groups seeking freedom even if loyalty to the Dutch state was limited.
Early Dutch settlement centers: New Netherland (1610s–1660s) along the Hudson River; New Amsterdam (later New York City) emerged as a major trading hub.
Dutch religious tolerance attracted diverse groups, contrasting with the more dogmatic policies of Spanish and French colonies.
The Netherlands’ independence from Spain (late 16th century) and its commercial rivalry with Spain and England shaped Dutch involvement in North America as a trading power rather than a strictly religious migration.
Dutch presence helped lay the groundwork for multiethnic colonial economies in the Atlantic world, emphasizing commerce and flexible religious practice more than a single colonial culture.
The French: New France and the interior network
Jacques Cartier and early exploration laid groundwork, but the major development came with Samuel de Champlain, the “Father of New France.”
1605 Port Royal established as a trading post; 1608 Quebec established along the St. Lawrence River as the center of New France.
The French pursued the fur trade (beaver pelts) and established alliances with Algonquin, Montagnais (Innus), Huron, and other Indigenous groups to secure beaver supply.
The Jesuits emphasized education and conversion as part of the mission network, though not as aggressively militaristic as some Spanish efforts; early French missions often intertwined with trade diplomacy.
The French expanded control along crucial waterways (St. Lawrence, Great Lakes, Mississippi Valley) and sought to build a Catholic empire that was less about mass settlement and more about trading networks and alliances.
In 1630s–30s, France passed laws restricting Protestant movement to New France, limiting Huguenot migration to the colonial interior and shaping the colony’s religious makeup (Catholic dominates New France).
By contrast with British colonies, New France was far less populous and relied on alliances with Indigenous peoples, rather than large-scale European settlement. The interior empire was more about commerce and strategic alliances than large farm settlements.
The Spanish in Florida and the Southwest; motivations and limitations
The Spanish maintained a presence in Florida and the American Southwest (New Spain areas such as New Mexico and California) with a focus on missionary activity, resource extraction, and strategic control.
The Spanish model emphasized the mission system, conversion, and the establishment of pueblos and presidios; it differed from English colonial patterns by integrating church and state in empire-building and by how it treated Indigenous populations.
Key patterns, outcomes, and long-term implications
Religious diversity and toleration varied: the Dutch were notably tolerant; English colonies in the north drew large waves of religious migration (Puritans, Separatists) seeking freedom of worship; the French promoted Catholicism and limited Protestant migration.
Economic engines differed by power center: tobacco (Virginia), fur trade (New France and Dutch areas), rope-and-grain-commercial agricultural products in various Atlantic colonies; mercantilism tied colonial output to metropolitan economies.
The Atlantic world became a patchwork of competing empires—Spain/Portugal, England, France, and the Dutch—each with different policies toward Indigenous peoples, labor systems, religion, and governance.
The early labor system in English colonies evolved from indentured servitude to slavery, particularly after 1619, shaping later American social and economic structures and racial hierarchies.
Indigenous-settler relations were central to survival and expansion but often culminated in conflict, dispossession, and shifting power dynamics.
Notable dates and numbers (for quick reference)
Columbus’s first voyage: 1492
John Cabot (Giovanni Caboto) voyage to North America (Northwest Passage attempt): 1497
Spanish Armada defeated by England: 1588
Roanoke established and lost: initial attempts in 1587; disappearance by 1590
Jamestown established: 1607
Starving Time at Jamestown: around 1610 (winter of 1610–1611)
First waymark of women and carpenters to Virginia: 1619
First African slaves arrive in Virginia (via Dutch ship): 1619
Population of Virginia by 1624: about \sim8{,}500 colonists; approximately 0.80 (80%) had died by that time
Plymouth Colony established: 1620 (Mayflower voyage and settlement; Mayflower Compact)
Thanksgiving at Plymouth: 1621
Massachusetts Bay Colony established (Winthrop and followers): 1630; about 1{,}000 settlers aboard 17 ships
Harvard College founded near Boston: 1636
New Netherland established (Dutch control around the Hudson River): early 1600s; New Amsterdam later becomes New York City
Cross-cutting themes and ethical considerations
Indigenous displacement, tribute extraction, and evolving alliances shaped the early colonial economies and political structures.
Slavery and labor systems emerged in the Atlantic world with a transition from indentured servitude to lifelong slavery, reflecting economic and racialized policy shifts.
Religious motives and policies varied—some groups sought religious refuge and freedom, others pursued political power or missionary aims—and these differences profoundly influenced the pattern of colonization and its long-term social consequences.
The consequences of early colonization include enduring questions about governance, democracy, and rights (e.g., the Mayflower Compact as a precursor to later democratic practices), as well as the long-term impact on Indigenous communities and cultural landscapes.
Connections to later lectures and broader significance
The mercantilist framework helps explain why European powers prioritized resource extraction and commercial routes, shaping global trade networks into the modern era.
The religious schisms and reform movements contributed to the emergence of settler societies with different religious and political institutions, influencing the development of constitutional governance in North America.
The experiences in Virginia, Plymouth, and Massachusetts Bay illustrate the varied paths toward founding a society—economic viability, religious liberty, and political organization—each with lasting legacies in American history.
Quick reference to key terms and figures
Mercantilism; favorable balance of trade; beaver pelts; tobacco; headright system; indentured servitude; enslaved labor; Mayflower Compact; Puritans; Separatists; Plymouth Colony; Massachusetts Bay Colony; John Smith; Pocahontas (Rebecca); John Rolfe; Powhatan Confederacy; Narragansett; Champlain; Quebec; Port Royal; Jesuit missions; New France; New Netherland; New Amsterdam; Henry VIII; Anglican Church; Elizabeth I; James I; Puritans/Separatists; Walter Raleigh; Roanoke; Spanish Armada; Drake
Study tips and exam-ready takeaways
Be able to explain the differences between mercantilist goals and the actual outcomes in the English colonies (e.g., tobacco-based economies vs. gold/treasure expectations).
Distinguish between the major colonial models: English (Virginia and the New England colonies) vs. French (New France) vs. Dutch (New Netherland) vs. Spanish (Florida and New Mexico) in terms of settlement patterns, labor systems, religion, and indigenous relations.
Remember the sequence of colonies and key dates: Roanoke (1587–1590), Jamestown (1607), the starving time (1610–1611), 1619 (women and Africans), Plymouth (1620) with Mayflower Compact (1620) and Thanksgiving (1621), Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630).
Understand how the headright system and indentured servitude laid the groundwork for demographic and economic development, including the transition toward slavery in the colonial labor system.
Recognize how religious toleration (Dutch) vs. religious restrictions (French New France) affected migration patterns and the religious makeup of colonial populations.
Note on historical accuracy in the lecture notes
Some dates and phrasing in the source narrative diverge from widely accepted historical timelines (e.g., Henry VIII’s break with Rome occurred in 1534, not 1634). The notes above reflect the content as presented, with clarifications added where appropriate for context. If you rely on this for exam prep, cross-check these dates with your course materials to ensure alignment with your instructor’s timeline.