MID-Module-Construction-equipment

    CONSTRUCTION      ENGINEERING

       MODULE

Construction Equipments

                          1 What is Construction Engineering?  Construction Engineers lead the construction   process that turns plans and designs into   physical reality.  To accomplish this, they manage the cost,   schedule, quality, and safety of a project to   deliver facilities that benefit society.  Construction Engineers also select the most   efficient construction methods and equipment,   mobilize project materials, design temporary   structures, and interface with customers,   governmental agencies, and the public during   the construction period.                                                   2  Introduction  In the case of huge construction projects proper use of the   appropriate equipment contributes to economy, quality,   safety, speed and timely completion of a project.

 Equipment are use for highway projects, irrigation,   buildings, power projects or any infrastructure project etc.

 15-30% of total project cost has been accounted towards   equipment and machinery.

                                                                 3   Standard types of equipment Construction equipment can be categorized in to 4 main sections based on purpose and use:

1. Earth Moving equipment

2. Construction vehicle

3. Material Handling Equipment

4. Construction Equipment                                                 4  CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENTS

5. Earth-moving equipment – Backhoe, shovel,    scraper

6. Earth-compacting equipment – Rollers, bulldozers

7. Hauling equipment – dumpers, trucks, tippers

8. Hoisting equipment – Crane, forklift

9. Conveying equipment – Belts, cables, conveyors

10. Aggregate production equipment - Jaw crusher,    Gyratory crusher, Cone crusher

11. Equipments concrete works – Agitation trucks,    RMC plant or batching plants.

12. Pile-driving equipment – Single & double acting    hammer, drop hammer, diesel hammer  Role of construction engineer in construction industry

13. Manage the contract tender processes for civil construction projects, including     tender assessment and recommendations to clients.

14. Prepare and review Bill of Quantities and prepare tender documentation.

15. Establish and maintain rapport with relevant stakeholders including clients,     authorities, contractors, other professional consultants and the general public.

16. Complete projects in a timely manner within budget and achieve high levels of     client satisfaction.

17. Resolve design issues that may occur on-site, seeking guidance from the     relevant Design Engineer when necessary.

18. Inspect works to ensure that they are constructed in accordance with the     engineering designs, contract specifications and authority requirements.

19. Conduct safety observations and conversations (SOCs) to help achieve a zero     accident on site.

20. Ensure equipment and manpower resources are being used efficiently.

21. Ensure that work is executing as per plans and specifications with the Quality     Assurance (QA)

22. Anticipate and resolve problems encountered in the field to eliminate costly     rework or retesting                                                                                6  Advantages of equipments and machineries at   construction site :

23. Works in construction field can get smoother and faster with the help of      equipment which can help to complete the project in given deadline.

24. If projects are completed on time using highly advanced equipment, the      brand value of business increases in the market, which in turn can help      in getting new clients.

25. Employing latest technology equipments allow contractors to complete      work with minimal quality defects.

26. Increased productivity and the reliability which raise profitability.

27. Multiple tasks may performed by the advance equipments which reduces      manpower.

28. Generally CE equipments with latest technology are environment      friendly and highly fuel efficient.

29. CE equipments with latest technologies require less maintenance. They      are designed in such a way that they can work for long without major      wear and tear.                                                                          7  Disadvantages of equipments and machineries at   construction site.

30. Equipments and machineries can be expensive to purchase and      operate.

31. Equipments and machineries require highly skilled and well-trained      technicians to operate.

32. All machines require an energy source, such as electricity or      hydraulic power

33. Equipments and machineries have made labours and unskilled or      partially skilled workers unemployed.

34. There are health hazards for workers and operator continuely in      contact with Equipments and machineries

35. Any casualty with Equipments and machineries on construction site      may lead to extreme loss.

36. Equipments and machineries require periodic routine maintenance      and lubrication unless that get broken down or damaged and then      require repairing which is also costlier again.                                                                     8  Difference between standard and special   equipment:   ------ Standard Equipment Special Equipment Use They are commonly used in multiple They are used for special projects                projects with standard or typical type of with special type of operations.                operation. Manufacture These components are easily These are manufactured as per the             manufactured and easily available from requirement and special order is to be             dealers. placed to get such equipment. Availability Easily available and fast delivery Availability is difficult and the                                                          delivery is also late. Spare parts Spare parts are easily available Spare parts are not easily available Repair, and Easy Difficult Maintenance Cost of the It is less per unit It is high per unit Production Example Concrete mixer,JCB,roller TBM, Hydraulic machine for dam                                                          construction                                                                                               9   Cost of equipment • The total cost of a construction equipment consist of     two components namely ownership cost and operating     cost. • This is also referred as O&O cost of the construction     equipment. • The selection of equipment in a construction project     depends on the total cost associated with that     equipment. • For construction firms, it is important to accurately     estimate the equipment cost as some percentage (%)     of the total cost of the construction project. • Inaccurate estimation of construction equipment cost     may adversely affect the profit margin of the firm.                                                        10 • Initial cost is the total cost of acquiring the asset. Also called   investment cost.

• Salvage value represents estimated market value of the asset at the end   of its useful life. It is the expected cash inflow that the owner of the   asset will receive by disposing it at the end of useful life.

• Book value is the value of asset recorded on the accounting books of   the firm at a given time period. It is generally calculated at the end of   each year. Book value at the end of a given year equals the,   (Initial cost - total depreciation amount till that year)

• Useful life represents the expected number of years the asset is useful   in terms of generating revenue. The asset may still be in working   condition after the useful life but it may not be economical.

• Useful life is also known as depreciable life. The asset is depreciated   over its useful life. 11  Owning cost (ownership cost) of equipment • Def: The total cost associated with the construction equipment for     owning it irrespective of the equipment is employed or not in the     project.

• The ownership cost consists of the following     a) Initial cost     b) Salvage value     c) Interest cost     d) Taxes     e) Insurance cost     f) Storage cost

                                                                 12 a) Initial cost : Initial cost is the capital investment required to own the equipment. It includes purchase cost, sales tax, transportation cost to bring the equipment in company’s storage yard or on construction site. It includes cost of assembly and installation of the equipment. b) Salvage value : This is scrap value at the end of useful life of the equipment which can be carried out by referring to the data of past projects in which similar equipment was used or from other relevant sources. c) Interest cost : It is the annual cost of interest charged on capital investment to acquire the ownership of the equipment. The interest cost on capital investment can be exactly calculated by considering time value of money and appropriate compound interest. d) Taxes: It represents the property taxes to be paid to the state or central government. it ranges from 2 to 5% of the average annual investment of equipment. e) Insurance cost : It represents the annual premium to be paid to insurance companies to cover the cost incurred due to accident, fire, theft, damage etc. for the construction equipment. It is generally about 1 to 3% of the average annual investment of equipment.  Contunued…

f) Storage cost : It is the cost of keeping the equipment in storage yards when it is not operating at the work site. Storage cost includes the rental and maintenance charge for storage yards, wages of security guards and wages of workers employed for bringing in and out of the storage yards. It is around 0.5 to 1.5% of the average annual investment of equipment.

                                                                   14  Operating cost of equipment • Operating cost is incurred only when the equipment is operated.

• The operating cost of the equipment is influenced by various      parameters like number of operating hours, location of job site,      operating conditions, category of equipment.

• The operating cost consists of the following: a) Repair and maintenance cost b) Fuel cost c) Cost of lubricating oil and grease d) Tire cost e) Equipment operator wages

                                                                  15 a) Repair and maintenance cost: Repair and maintenance cost is incurred as the construction equipment is subjected to wear and tear due to the operations it performs. The repair and maintenance cost includes the cost of replacement parts, labour charges and the cost of setting up and operating facilities to carry out major repair and maintenance operations. b) Fuel cost : Historical data about the quantity of fuel consumed by similar equipment under similar working conditions can be used to estimate the hourly fuel consumption by the equipment. If these records are not available, equipment manufacturer’s fuel consumption data can be used to estimate the fuel cost. The hourly fuel cost can be calculated by multiplying the hourly fuel consumption by its unit price. c) Cost of lubricating oil and grease :The quantity of lubricating oil, filter and grease required depends on operating hours, frequency of changes, engine characteristics and working conditions at the job site. d) Tire cost : The tire cost includes the tire repair and replacement charges. The service life of tires is generally shorter than that of the equipment as the tires wear out at a faster rate than the equipment. e) Equipment operator wages : The operator cost includes the hourly wages and benefits paid by the company to the operators. It includes normal wages, workmen’s compensation insurance premium, fringe benefits, bonus etc. The operator wages vary from project to project 16  Depreciation cost : • Equipment is a depreciating asset.

• As the equipment is used in the project, there is depreciation     in value of the equipment due to wear and tear and     obsolescence.

• The total amount of depreciation for the construction     equipment over the useful life is,     Depreciation cost = [Initial cost - Estimated salvage value]

• The value of our investment decreases with age. This must be   recognized and set funds aside to replace the asset

                                                               17  Methods to calculate Depreciation cost :

1. Straight-line (SL) depreciation method:

2. Declining balance (DB) depreciation method:

3. double-declining balance (DDB)

4. Sum-of-years-digits (SYD) depreciation method

5. Sinking fund (SF) depreciation method:-

                                                 18   Economical Life of Construction Equipment:

• The owner of construction equipment should be interested in   obtaining the lowest possible cost per unit of production.

• In order to accomplish this objective he must follow an informed   program of equipment replacement. When should equipment be   replaced?

• If the owner replaces it too soon, he will experience an unnecessary   capital loss, whereas, if he waits too long, the equipment will have   passed its period of economic operation.

• In order to determine the most economical time to replace equipment,   accurate records of maintenance and repair costs and downtime must   be kept for each machine.

• The owner must consider all costs related to the ownership and   operation of the equipment, and the effect which continued use will   have on these costs.                                                                    19  Sources of Construction Equipment: • Contractors and other users of construction equipment are concerned with a   decision as to whether to purchase or rent equipment. • Under certain conditions it is financially advantageous to purchase, whereas   under other conditions it is more economical and satisfactory to rent it. There   are at least three methods under which a contractor may secure the use of   construction equipment:

1. Purchase the equipment
2. Rent the equipment
3. Rent the equipment with an option to purchase it at a later date. • The method selected should be the one that will provide the use of the   equipment at the lowest total cost. • Each of the three methods has both advantages and disadvantages which should   be considered prior to making a decision. • If the cost was the only factor to be considered, then an analysis of the cost   under each method should give the answer. If other factors should be   considered, they should be evaluated and applied to the cost as a basis on which   to reach a decision. • The correct decision for one contractor will not necessarily apply for another   contractor.                                                                             20  Advantages of purchasing equipment compared to renting it are:
4. It is more economical if the equipment is used sufficiently.
5. It is more likely to be available for use when needed.
6. Because ownership should assure better maintenance and care, purchased    equipment should be kept in better mechanical condition.

 Disadvantages of owning equipment compared to renting it are:

1. It may be more expensive than renting.
2. Purchasing may require a substantial investment of money or credit that    may be needed for other purposes.
3. The ownership of equipment may influence a contractor to continue using    obsolete equipment after superior equipment has been introduced.
4. The ownership of equipment designed primarily for a given type of work,    may induce a contractor to continue doing that type of work, whereas other    work requiring different types of equipment might be available at a higher    profit.
5. The ownership of equipment might influence a contractor using the    equipment beyond its economic life, thereby increasing the cost of production    unnecessarily.

                                                                             21  Rent the equipment with an option to purchase it at   a later date.  Once the decision is made whether to purchase or rent, the next decision to be     made is whether to simply rent or rent with an option to purchase.

 The latter alternative will result in a higher rental cost as some of the periodic     rental charges will be applicable towards the purchase price of the equipment.

 This is an attractive alternative if the renter of the equipment believes he may     have enough use for the equipment to purchase it.

 This kind of rental agreement results in higher hourly charges than straight     rental agreement.

                                                                                 22  Factors affecting Selection of construction   equipment :

1. Economic Considerations

2. Company-Specific

3. Site-Specific

4. Equipment-Specific

5. Client And Project-Specific

6. Manufacturer-Specific

7. Labour Consideration                                                 23 1. Economic Considerations: The economic considerations such as owning costs, operating labour costs and operating fuel costs of equipment are most important in selection of equipment. Besides, the resale value, the replacement costs of existing equipment, and the salvage value associated with the equipment are also important.

8. Company-Specific: The selection of equipment by a company maybe governed by its policy on 'owning' or 'renting’. While emphasis on 'owning' may result in purchase of equipment keeping in mind the future requirement of projects, the emphasis on 'renting' may lead to putting too much focus on short-term benefits.

9. Site-Specific: Site conditions-both ground conditions as well as climatic conditions-may affect the equipment-selection decision. For example, the soil and profile of a site may dictate whether to go for a crawler-mounted equipment or a wheel-mounted equipment.                                                                                24 If there is a power line at or in the vicinity of site, one may go for a fixed-base kind of equipment rather than a mobile kind of equipment.

10. Equipment-Specific : Construction equipments come with high price tags. While it may be tempting to go for the equipment with low initial price, it is preferable to opt for standard equipments. Such equipments are manufactured in large numbers by the manufacturers, and their spare parts are easily available, which would ensure minimum downtime. Besides, they can also fetch good salvage money at the time of their disposal.

11. Client And Project-Specific : The owner/client in a certain project may have certain preferences that are not in line with the construction company's preferred policies as far as equipment procurement is concerned. The schedule, quality and safety requirements demanded of a particular project may in some cases force the company to yield to the demands of the client. 6. Manufacturer-Specific : A construction company may prefer to buy equipment from the same manufacturer again and again, and that too from a specific dealer. This may be to bring in uniformity in the equipment fleet possessed by the company or because the company is familiar with the working style of the manufacturer and the dealer.

12. Labour Consideration : Shortage of manpower in some situations may lead to a decision in favour of procuring equipment that is highly automated. Further, the selection of equipment may be governed by the availability or non-availability of trained manpower.

                                                                               26  BALANCING OF EQUIPMENT

1. Balancing of equipment is the coordination between co-related equipments such      that no any construction equipment while in working remain idle.

2. If on construction site shovel is excavating the earth and loading in the dumper      after that at particular distance dumper is hauling and unloading the material so      balance the construction equipment in such a way that neither the shovel nor no.      of dumpers should remain idle or idle time for power shovel should be least and      output should be more with minimum cost.

3. Balancing of construction equipment helps to save time, fuel and the operating      cost.

4. In balancing of equipment cycle time of equipments, particular distance of      loading and unloading, traffic conditions, site or road condition affects on      efficiency.

5. In balancing of equipment, idle time for equipment either should be zero or      should be at very least as far as possible.  EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS SELECTION CRITERIA              FOR EARTHWORK EQUIPMENTS

6. Quantities of material to be moved.

7. The available time to complete the work the job conditions

8. The prevailing soil types, the swell and compaction factors, etc.

9. The job conditions include factors such as availability of loading and dumping area, accessibility of site, traffic flows and weather conditions at site.

10. Available finance 28  Excavators Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, stick, bucket and cab on a rotating platform (known as the “house”). The house sits atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels. Excavators are also called diggers

                      Prof. IRFAN NALBAND 29  Excavators Excavators are used in many ways: a. Digging of trenches, holes, foundations b. Material handling c. Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments d. Forestry work e. Demolition f. General grading/landscaping g. Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes h. Mining, especially, but not only open-pit mining i. River dredging j. Driving piles, in conjunction with a pile driver

                                                      30 BACKHOE

          31  BACK HOE • Also known as hoe, back shovel and pull shovel • It is used to excavate below the natural surface on   which it rests. • Generally used to excavate trenches, pits for   basements and also for grading works, which   requires precise control of depths. • The basic parts are boom, Jack boom, Boom foot   drum, Boom sheave, Stick sheave, Stick, Bucket   and Bucket sheave

                                                        32 Backhoes are mainly used to clean up construction areas, to dig holes in the ground, to smooth uneven ground, to make trenches, ditches and to help remove deep roots from trees.

It can exert high tooth pressures and hence can excavate stiff material which normally cannot be excavated by dragline. Out put of hoe is greatest when the excavation is done near the machine, because cycle tin of operation reduces.

“ A backhoe. also called a rear actor or back actor, is a piece of excavating equipment or digger consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part articulated arm. They are typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader.

 Also known as hoe, hack shovel and pull shovel, It is used to excavate below the natural surface on which it rests. Generally used to excavate trenches, pits for basements and also for grading works, which requires precise control of depths. The section of the arm closest to the vehicle is known as the boom, and the section which carries the bucket is known as the dipper or dipper stick. The boom is attached to the vehicle through a pivot known as the kingpost, which allows the arm to slew left and right, usually through a total of around 200 degrees. Modern backhoes are powered by hydraulics.                                                                             33  Application

• It is the most suitablemachinefor diggingbelowthe   machine level, such as, trenches, footings,   basements etc. • It can be efficiently used to dress or trim the   surface avoiding the use of manual effort   for dressing the excavated the surface.

                                                  16 34  Shovel A shovel (also stripping shovel or power shovel or electric mining shovel or Dipper Shovel’s power shovel) is a bucket- equipped machine, usually electrically powered, used for digging and loading earth or fragmented rock and for mineral extraction. They are mounted on crawler tracks. To excavate the earth and to load the trucks It is used to excavate earth of all classes except hard rock and load it into wagons. Size varies from O.375m3 to 5m3.

                                                                      35 Basics parts of power shovel including the track system, cabin, cables, rack, stick, boom foot-pin, saddle block., boom, boom point sheaves and bucket. Power shovels are used principally for excavation and removal of overburden in open- cut mining operations. It may include loading of minerals, such as coal. They are the modern equivalent of steam shovels, and operate in a similar fashion. They are suitable for heavy positive cutting in all types of dry soils.

                                                                   36 •   New Front Shovel • A shovel’s work cycle, or digging cycle, consists of   four phases:   a. digging   b. swinging   c. dumping   d. returning • Applications of Front Shovel:   •Suitable for close range of work   • Capable of digging very hard maerials.   •can remove big sized boulders.   •It is used in various types of jobs such as digging   in gravel banks, clay pits, digging cuts in road   works, road-side berms. etc.                                                      37 Factors affecting output of power shovel   • Class of material   • Depth of cutting   • Angle of swing   • Job condition   • Management condition   • Size of hauling units   • Skill of the operator   • Physical condition of the shovel

                                           38 OLD  NEW

             39             13  Dragline They are used to excavate soft earth from below ground and to deposit or to load in wagons. Output of dragline is measured in Cubic Meters per hour. They are used for bulk excavation below its track level in loose soils, marshy land and areas containing water.

                                                         40 1. The drag line is so name because of its prominent operation of dragging the bucket against the material to be dug.

2. Unlike the shovel, it has a long light crane boom and the bucket is loosely attached to the boom through cables.
3. Because of this construction, a dragline can dig and dump over larger distances than a shovel can do.
4. Drag lines are useful for digging below its track level and handling softer materials.
5. The basic parts of a drag line including the boom, hoist cable, drag cable, hoist chain, drag chain and bucket.                                                      41  Application

• It is the most suitable machine for dragging softer material   and below its track level • It is very useful for excavating trenches when the sides are   permitted to establish their angle of repose without   shoring. • It has long reaches. • It is mostly used in the excavation for canals and   depositing on the embankment without hauling units.

                                                                  42                                                                  18 43  Clam shell • This is so named due to resemblance of its bucket to a   clam which is like a shell-fish with hinged double shell. • The front end is essentially a crane boom with a specially   designed bucket loosely attached at the end through cables   as in a drag line. • The capacity of a clam shell bucket is usually given in   cubic meters. • The basic parts of clam shell bucket are the closing line,   hoist line, sheaves, brackets, tagline, shell and hinge.

                      Prof. IRFAN NALBAND 20 44  Application

• Used for handling loose material such as crushed stone,   sand, gravel, coal etc.

• Main feature is vertical lifting of material from one   location to another.

• Mainly used for removing material from coffer dam,   sewer main holes, well foundations etc.

                                                        21 45 CLAM SHELL

              46              22 47 Comparison between different types of equipment sr. Items of Power Back hoe Drag line Clam shell No. comparison shovel

 1 Excavation in hard Good Good Not good Poor          soil or rock

 2 Excavation in wet Poor Poor Moderately Moderately          soil or mud good good

 3 Distance between Small Small Long Long          footing and            digging

 4 Loading efficiency Very good Good Moderately Precise but                                                     good slow

                                                                     48                                                                     23 Continued…..

 5 Footing required Close to Close to pit Fairly away Fairly away                          work from pit from pit

 6 Digging level Digs at or Digs below Digs below Digs at or                           above footing level footing level below                          footing footing level                            level

 7 Cycle time Short Shortly more More than More than                                       than power power the                                         shovel shovel other                                                                       equipment

                                                                           2349   Trenching machine • A trencher is a piece of construction equipment used to dig trenches, especially   for laying pipes or electrical cables, for installing drainage. • Following are the types of trenchers:

1. Wheel trencher

2. Chain trencher

3. Micro trencher

4. Portable trencher

5. Tractor mount trencher

   1. Wheel trencher :

• A wheel trencher or rockwheel is composed of a toothed metal     wheel. It is cheaper to operate and maintain than chain-type     trenchers. It can work in hard or soft soils • Due to its design the wheel may reach variable cutting depths     with the same tool, and can keep a constant soil working angle     with a relatively small wheel diameter 50 2. Chain trencher: (Ladder type trenching machine)

A chain trencher cuts with a digging chain or belt that is driven around a rounded metal frame, or boom. It resembles a giant chainsaw. This type of trencher can cut ground that is too hard. To cut a trench, the boom is held at a fixed angle while the machine creeps slowly. The chain trencher is used for digging wider trenches (telecommunication, electricity, drainage, water, gas, sanitation, etc.) especially in rural areas. The excavated materials can be removed by conveyor belt reversible either on the right or on the left side. 51 3. Micro trencher: A micro trencher is a "small rockwheel" specially designed for work in urban area. It is fitted with a cutting wheel that cuts a microtrench with smaller dimensions than can be achieved with conventional trench digging equipment.

A micro trencher can work on narrow streets of cities, and can cut harder ground than a chain trencher, including cutting through solid stone. They are also used to cut pavement for road maintenance and to gain access to utilities under roads.

                                        52 4. Portable trencher: Landscapers and lawn care specialist use a portable trencher to install landscape edging and irrigation lines. These machines are lightweight and are easy to operate compared to other types of trenchers. The cutting implement may be a chain or a blade.

5. Tractor mount trencher: A tractor mount trencher is a trenching device which needs a creeping gear tractor to operate. This type of trenchers is another type of chain trencher. The tractor should be able to go as slowly as the trencher's trenching speed

                                         53  Application of Trenching machine:

1. Cutting Pavement Use wheel trenchers to cut through rock, pavement, or concrete. You can operate wheel trenchers on difficult ground conditions and obtain clean, straight trenches. They also work well on patch and joint replacement projects involving highways, streets, and interstates.
2. Creating Drainage Save money and time needed to dig several feet of soil by using chain trenchers to create drainage trenches for water or sewage runoff. Once you dig up the soil with a portable trencher, you can run sprinkler or irrigation piping underground.
3. Shoveling Maybe you’re a homeowner who wants to avoid hours of painful shoveling that causes blistered hands. A smaller walk-behind trencher can cut down on the time needed to complete a project. Use this smaller version to dig 3 to 4 feet deep.
4. Digging for Electrical Wires If you need to dig underground for electrical or telecommunication wires, you can use chain trenchers from the power pole to the residence.The trencher’s conveyor belt removes the excavated materials.
5. Snipping Roots In addition to cutting concrete and making rows in the soil, portable trenchers have a blade that serves as a rotary lawn mower blade and severs roots. If you encounter roots while working the soil, hold the trencher’s chain blade in place while the blade spins. Slowly inch the blade forward and let the blade cut through the roots.                                                                                              54  Scrapers The scraper is a large piece of equipment which is used in mining, construction, agriculture and other earthmoving applications. The rear part has a vertically moveable hopper(also known as the bowl) with a sharp horizontal front edge.The hopper can be hydraulically lowered and raised. When the hopper is lowered, the front edge cuts into the soil or clay like a plane and fills the hopper. When the hopper is full (8 to 34 m3) it is raised, and closed with a vertical blade (known as the apron). The scraper can transport its load to the fill area where the blade is raised, the back panel of the hopper, or the ejector, is hydraulically pushed forward and the load tumbles out.

                                                                                   55 While being pulled the scraper first it cuts the upper layer of dirt, then loads then transports and unload or dumps material then compacts superficially. The scraper is capable to maintain an optimal productivity. It is certainly one of the most cost-efficient earth-moving machines. • Following are the types of scrapers:

1. Self loading scraper

2. Self propelled scraper

3. Towed type scraper

4. Tandem scraper

5. Twin engine scraper

6. Multi engine multi bowl scraper                        Advantages of scraper:

7. The body of scraper is short and easy to dismental.

8. Can be operated on hydraulic pressure.

9. Saves approximately 3o % fuel compared to other heavy earth     moving equipments.

10. Very useful for short distances 56 DOZERS 58 Powerful machine for pushing earth or rocks, used in road building, farming, construction and wrecking; it consists of a heavy, broad steel blade or plate mounted on the front of a tractor. Sometimes it uses a four-wheel-drive tractor, but usually a track or crawler type, mounted on continuous metal treads, is employed. The blade may be lifted and forced down by hydraulic rams. For digging, the blade is held below surface level; for transporting, it is held at the surface level and for spreading.

11. MECHANISM OF DOZER

HORSEPOWER 32.4 kW 43.4 HP @ 2450 rpm OPERATING WEIGHT D21A-8E0: 3710 kg

2. Responsive Operation: • Forward and reverse • Right and left steering • Lifting • Angling • Tilting                                                                                    59 TYPE OF DOZERS 1.Crawler Dozer 2.Wheel Dozer A. Single axle. B. Two-axle.

DOZERS USES:

1. Land clearing.
2. Dozing (pushing material)
3. Ripping.
4. Towing other pieces of construction equipments
5. Assisting scrapers in loading.                                                 60 BLADES: The bulldozer blade is a heavy metal plate on the front of the tractor, used to push objects, and shoving sand, soil and debris.

There are 4 types of blades:

1. A straight blade ("S blade") which is short and has no lateral curve and no side wings and can be used for fine grading.
2. A universal blade ("U blade") which is tall and very curved, and has large side wings to carry more material.
3. An "S-U" combination blade which is shorter, has less curvature, and smaller side wings. This blade is typically used for pushing piles of large rocks, such as at a quarry.
4. Cushion Dozers blades are used to push load scrapers or track-type tractors.

                                                                      61 Blades can be fitted straight across the frame, or at an angle, sometimes using additional 'tilt cylinders' to vary the angle while moving. The bottom edge of the blade can be sharpened.      Fig. 1 :TILTING of Blade Fig. 2: ANGLE of Blade

                                                                      62 RIPPERS:  The ripper is the long claw-like device on the back of the bulldozer.  Rippers can come as a single shank/giant ripper) or in groups of two  or more (multi shank rippers). Usually, a single shank is preferred for  heavy ripping. The ripper shank is fitted with a replaceable tungsten  steel alloy tip. • Ripping rock breaks the ground surface rock or  pavement into small rubble easy to handle and transport, which can  then be removed so grading can take place.

                                                                   63 2. EARTH COMPACTING EQUIPMENT: A machine used to carryout light or heavy compacting of earth. The soil compaction equipments can be divided into two groups: • Light soil compacting equipments • Heavy soil compacting equipments

                                                64 1. : Light soil compacting equipments: These equipments are used for soil compacting of small areas only and where the compacting effort needed is less (i) Rammers: Rammers are used for compacting small areas by providing impact load to the soil. This equipment is light and can be hand or machine operated. The base size of rammers can be 15cm x 15cm or 20cm x 20cm or more.

                                                65 RAMMERS

          66 (ii) Vibrating Plate Compactors: Vibrating plate compactors are used for compaction of coarse soils with 4 to 8% fines. These equipments are used for small areas. The usual weights of these machines vary from 100 kg to 2 tonne with plate areas between 0.16 m2 and 1.6 m2.

                                                 67 (iii) Vibro Tampers: Vibro tampers is used for compaction of small areas in confined space. This machine is suitable for compaction of all types of soil by vibrations set up in a base plate through a spring activated by an engine driven reciprocating mechanism. They are usually manually guided and weigh between 50 and 100 kg (100 to 220 lbs).

                                                68 2. Heavy Soil Compaction Equipments: • These compacting machines are used for large   areas for use on different types of soils. The   heavy compaction equipments are selected   based on moisture content of soil and types of   soil.

                                               69 I) Smooth Wheeled Rollers: Smooth wheeled rollers are of two types:

• Static smooth wheeled rollers

• Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers

                                           70 Static smooth wheeled rollers

                                71 • Static smooth wheeled rollers • The smooth wheeled rollers consists of one   large steel drum in front and two steel drums   on the rear. • The gross weight of these rollers is in the   range of 8-10 tonnes. • Performance of smooth wheeled rollers   depend on load per cm width it transfers to   the soil and diameter of the drum. • Smooth wheel roller is called Tandem Roller,   which weighs between 6-8 tonne

                                                  72 • Performance of these rollers can be increased   by increasing the increasing the weight of the   drum. • A speed of 3-6 kmph is considered   appropriate for smooth wheel rollers. • The desirable speed and number of passes for   appropriate compaction of soil depends on   the type of soil. • About 8 passes are adequate for compacting   20 cm layer

                                                   73  Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers Economical due to their higher outputs and improved performance.

                                       74 • Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers • The drums are made to vibrate by employing   rotating or reciprocating mass. • These rollers are helpful from several   considerations like:- • (i) Higher compaction level can be achieved   with maximum(ii)wShoeerpksfootroller Roller: • (ii) Compaction can be done up to greater   depths • (iii) Output is many times more than   conventional rollers

                                                 75 (ii) Sheepsfoot roller Roller:

                                 76 (ii) Sheepsfoot roller Roller: Sheepsfoot rollers are of static and vibratory types • It is used for compaction of subgrade layers. • It consist of steel drums on which projecting    lugs are fixed. • They apply a pressure upto 14kg/sq cm or    more. • Types of lugs are spindle shaped with widened    base, prismatic and clubfoot type.

                                              77 • The compaction of soil is mainly due to foots   penetrating and exerting pressure on the soil. • The pressure is maximum when a foot is   vertical.

                                                   78  Other Types of Rollers are:  • Pneumatic Tyred Rollers:

Pneumatic tyred rollers are also called as rubber tyred rollers. These rollers are used for compaction of coarse grained soils with some fines.                                                        79  • Grid Rollers:

Grid rollers are used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded coarse soils but are not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays and unPrifofo. IrRFmANsoils. 80  HAULING EQUIPMENTS • The equipment used for transportation of   material is called as hauling equipment.

                                             81  FEATURES OF HAULING EQUIPMENT

• Haulers can operate on Road or   Railway. • Used for transporting of construction   material. • Used for carriage & disposal of   excavated earth. • Haulage of heavy equipments.                                       82  Haulage by Road Haulage by road are carried out by : • Rubber Tyred Trucks, Dumpers, with wagons or crawler    tractor with wagon. • Transporting of Earth, Aggregate, Rock, Ore, Coal, & other    material. • Road Vehicles used for haulage works are of two types:

1. On-Highway: Designed to be used on Public Roads.
2. Off-Highway : Designed to be used on Construction sites &       can also be used on public roads, which may or may not       comply with Highway Regulations.

                                                                  83  TRUCKS

• Have high mobility. • Good Speed. • Good Adoptability. • Capacity varies from 0.4CUM to 20 CUM. • Speed Varies from 10 KMPH to 40 KMPH.                                              84  DUMP TRUCKS

• Heavy Duty Trucks. Capacity Upto 53 Tonnes. • Strongly Built Body which Hinges on Truck Chassis. • Dumping can be either at Rear End or One Sided. • Hydraulinc Jack id fitted on Truck to Lift or Discharge on one   side. • Suitable for Hauling Wet Clay, Sand, Gravel, Quarry Rocks etc                                                                85  Bottom Dump Trucks

•Similar to Semi Trailers. •Front of Trailer is attached to the back of Truck/Tractor.

                                                          86 •Body of Truck remains in same position. •Discharge of material takes place from the bottom by opening the two longitudinal gates. •Gates are hinged to the side of body. •Best for Free flowing material like, Sand, Gravel, Dry Earth, Concrete, Coal &Profe. tc.AN                               IRF 87  DUMPERS

Difference between a Dumper & Dump Truck : • Dumper is a open 4 Wheeled Vehicle with Load Skip   in Front of Driver. • Dump Truck Has a cabin in front of the load.                                                   88 •Skip can be used to Dump the load. •Diesel Powered. •Fixed with towing Eye to be used as a tr actor. •Payload of 10 Tons. •Loading, Dumping & Hauling is done Fast as compared to other equipments. •Suitable for Short Hauls , On Rough Roads.                                                        89  TIPPERS

• A lorry which can discharge the material by gravity, by   raising the front portion. • Best Suited For Rogh works, Minning, Quarrying &   carrying bulk loads. • Full maneuverability. • High Performance & Endurance. • Lower operating Cost.                                                             90  TRAILERS

• It is an unpowered vehicle which is pulled by Powered   vehicle. • Used to transport Equipments, Defense Armaments. • Best suited for safe transportation of costly goods. • Can be custom made for heavy equipments. • Comes with or without hydraulic jack.                                                           91  Tractors • Multi-purpose machines used mainly for pulling and pushing the other   equipment. • Tractors may be classified as a) Crawler type tractor- Used to move bull dozers, scrapers. The crawler has a    chain by which these tractors can be very effective even in the case of loose or    muddy soils. The speed of this type dose not exceed 12 kmph normally.

b) Wheel type tractor- The engine is mounted on four wheels. The main    advantage is higher speed, sometimes exceeding 50 kmph it is used for long-    distance hauling and good roads.

                                                                              92                                                                              31 TRACTOR

           93           32 Comparison between crawler and wheeled tractors                   Crawler type Wheeled type

1. Slow speed 1. Greater speed

2. More compact and powerful and can 2. Con handle only lighter jobs handle heavier jobs

3. costly 3. cheaper

4. Cost of operation and maintenance is high 4. Operational and maintenance cost is less

5. Stick control for steering 5. Wheel steering control

6. Moves on rough roads only 6. Moves on rough as well as good roads

7. Used for short distances 7.Used for longer distances

8. Requires skillful operation, maintenance 8. Lesser skills required for operations, and repairs maintenance and repairs                                                                                             94                                                                                            33  DRILLING & BLASTING Drilling and Blasting is the controlled use of explosives and other methods such as gas pressure blasting pyrotechnics, to break rock for excavation. It is practiced most often in mining, quarrying and civil engineering such as dam or road construction. The result of rock blasting is often known as a rock cut.

                                                               95  DRILLING DEFINITION- The process of making a hole in hard materials such as rocks and earth called drilling. COMPONENTS Drill- Type of tool which holds the drill bit and rotates it to provide axial force to create a hole. Drill bits- Cutting tools used to create cylindrical holes.

                                    96  DRILL BITS • These are cutting tools used to create   cylindrical holes. Drilling operation is depend   on ability, sharpness and impact of bit.

• Bits are held in tool called a Drill which rotate   bit and provide axial force to create hole.

• Bits are basically classified in two categories:

1. Forged bits
2. Detachable bits

                                                     97  1. Forged bits • They are made up of single length of drill steel in various   shapes such as circular, hexagonal, octagonal. • Bits of Jack-hammer , Drifters are forged in such way   that one end fixes in chuck of drill and other end is   sharpening steel to perform drilling operation. • For forged bits, air operated sharpeners are installed at   site to sharpen bits. • The diameter of steel bits varies from 25mm-100mm   and depth of hole that can be drilled depends on the   type of rocks. • For hard rock depth of cutting is about few centimetres   while for soft rock it may be 10m -12m.                                                          98  Forged bits • They are made up of single length of drill steel in various   shapes such as circular, hexagonal, octagonal. • Bits of Jack-hammer , Drifters are forged in such way   that one end fixes in chuck of drill and other end is   sharpening steel to perform drilling operation. • For forged bits, air operated sharpeners are installed at   site to sharpen bits. • The diameter of steel bits varies from 25mm-100mm   and depth of hole that can be drilled depends on the   type of rocks. • For hard rock depth of cutting is about few centimetres   while for soft rock it may be 10m -12m.                                                          99  2. Detachable bits • These are steel bits which can be attached or removed from drill. • These bits are easily available in various size and shapes. • These bits are cheaper, can be easily replaced and resharpened. • Following are the some types of detachable bits:

1. Twist bit: These are carbon steel material coated with Titanium    nitride (TiN) and gold like colour. These can be used for drilling    tiumber, plastic, metal material objects.
2. Screwdriver bit: These are designed to fit in rechargeable    screwdriver and have low power. They have hexagonal shank    ideal for drilling pilot holes.
3. Carbide-insert bit: These are used for very hard rock or for very    abrasive rock. These bits are more expensive than steel bits.    Carbide-insert bits are consisted of very hard metal, tungsten    carbide.

                                                                100 101  TYPES OF DRILLS OR TYPES OF   DRILLING EQUIPMENT:

1. PERCUSSION DRILLS  1.Jackhammer or sinkers  2.Stop hammer  3.Drifters

2. ABRASION DRILLS

3. Blasthole DRILLS

4. Diamond DRILLS

5. Shot DRILLS

6. FUSION PIERCING

                                102 1. Jackhammer • This is an air-operated drill which can easily be   carried out from one place to other. • It is also known as sinker as it is mainly used to drill   vertical holes. • This drills the hole of depth 3m – 6m on ground of   hard strata. • The compressed air moves the piston so that the   hammer effect is transferred to the bit through the   drill steel.

                                                     103 2. Stop hammer: • This is modified form of jackhammer and it is    used for overhead drilling as in case of tunnel. It    is automatically operated or hand operated.

                                                   104 3. Drifter: (Jumbo Drill) • The large and heavier percussion drills mounted on   tractors, crawlers, wagons etc.. This combination of drill   and mount is called as Drifter. • Drifter is a heavy duty rock drills used for drifting and   tunnelling. • It is hydraulically or pneumatically operated drill similar   to jackhammer but it is very large so it requires   mechanical mounting. • Drifters are expensive and can be used mostly in   tunnelling, mining works. • A drifter is able to drill holes up to 152mm diameter and   up to 40 meters depth in hard materials, rocks or   concrete structures.                                                         105 106  ABRASION DRILLS DEFINITION- Grind rock into small particles through abrasive effect of bit that rotates in hole.

TYPES-  1.Blast-hole drills  2.Shot drills  3.Diamond drills

Blast hole drills- Rotary drill consisting of steel pipe drill stem on bottom of which is roller bit that disintegrates the rock as it rotates over it. It is suitable for soft to medium rocks. 107 Shot drills- Rotary drill whose bit consists of a steel pipe with a roughened surface at bottom. It can drill hole about 180m. It is possible to drill rock of any hardness with shot drill. (In fig. above 1st – Blast hole drill, 2nd & 3rd – Shot drill) Diamond drills- Rotary drill whose bit Consists of metal matrix with number of diamonds which disintegrating the rock while rotating. It is suitable for very hard rock specially in tunnelling. It is special equipment and it is very expensive.

                                                                   108   DRILLING PATTERNS • Square Pattern

• Staggered (or) Triangular pattern

• Single row blasting pattern

• Multi blasting pattern

• Wedge cut pattern

• Diagonal blasting pattern

                                      109 1. Square Pattern: • This pattern can also be called as multi row pattern. • The drill holes are drilled in rows, one behind the other.

2. Staggered (or) Triangular pattern: • The drill holes are drilled in rows. • The second row holes are positioned midway between the first row of holes.

                                                               110 3. Single row blasting pattern:- • The holes are drilled in a single row. The specific explosive consumption is low. • The danger associated with fly rock is more.

4. Multi blasting pattern:- • The holes are drilled in several rows. • The holes may be staggered or square. • After the holes are drilled, blasting may be carried out either by Wedge cut pattern or Diagonal blasting pattern                                                                        111 5. Wedge cut pattern:- • This pattern as shown in the fig, is adopted in hard and medium hard rocks. • The distances are fixed from the middle to the ends as shown in the fig.

5. Diagonal blasting pattern:- • This pattern reduces secondary blasting. • The blast holes can be drilled in square or staggered pattern. • It must be ensured that the distances are in proper sequence to avoid any cut off.

                                      112  BLASTING DEFINITION- The process of breaking rocks into smaller pieces with the use of explosives is called as Blasting.

                                                           113   Blasting materials Following materials are required for Blasting process:

1. Detonators

2. Explosives

3. Fuses

4. Detonators: • This is contrivance whose explosion initiates that     of another in continue chain. • It is in the form of copper cylinder having     diameter about 6mm & length 25mm. • It’s one end is sealed and other end is fused. • It’s used when dynamite is adopted as an     explosive. • Detonators are fired either by fuse or electric     sparks. 114 2. Explosives: • Blasting powder and Dynamites   are commonly used as explosives • Blasting powder is also known as   Gun powder. • Blasting powder is mixture of   charcoal, sulphur, (KNO3) or   (NaNO3). • Dynamite consist of 25% of sandy   earth saturated with 75% of Nitro-   glycerine. • Dynamite is in thick paste form and   it is sold in Cartridges.                                         115 Sr. Blasting Powder Dynamite No

5. Its lifting power is high during Its shattering power is high     quarrying during quarrying

6. It is cheaper It is almost five times costlier                                     than blasting powder.

7. Destruction power is weak Destruction power is very                                     strong.

8. Blasting efficiency is lesser Blasting efficiency is greater     compared to Dynamites than blasting powder.

9. It requires hard tamping It doesn’t require hard                                     tamping, because it is in the                                     paste form.

10. It is used for ordinary type of It is used for tunnelling and     quarrying work. mining operations.                                                                116  FUSES Fuses are required to ignite explosives.

They are in the form of a small rope of cotton with core of continuous thread of gun powder.

The rate of burning is about 1 cm/sec. It is also called safety fuses.

They enable the person firing the charge and then move to a safe distance before the explosion takes place.                                           117  Firing Charge:

 The common practice is to fire number of   holes at one time and for this purpose parallel   circuits, series circuits and combination of   both parallel and series are usually adopted.

 Each circuit is tested for continuity with the   help of “Galvanometer” before making final   connection to the source of electric current.

 Such precaution is necessary to avoid misfires.                                                118 119 1. A blasting cap is a small sensitive secondary    explosive device generally used to detonate.

2. They are used in commercial mining, excavation, and demolition.
3. These are safer explosives.                                                                120 Transporting, storing & handling of explosives
4. Dynamite and detonators should be kept separately when storing    and transporting.
5. Vehicle carrying explosives should carry a warning sign and    operated with care.
6. The smoking or the carrying of matches and lighteners etc.,    should not be permitted on or around a vehicle transporting    explosives.
7. Truck used for moving explosives should be heavily insulated.
8. Explosives should be stored in dry ventilated bullet proof and    fire resistant magazines, away from buildings and roads.
9. Vehicles used for transporting explosives shall be strong    enough to carry the load without difficulty and be in good    mechanical condition.
10. Vehicles transporting explosives shall only be driven by the    driver who is familiar with the traffic regulations, State laws,    and OSHA requirements.
11. Magazine (container)floors stained with nitroglycerin shall be    cleaned according to instructions by the manufacturer.                                                                       121  Explain the step by step procedures of blasting in hard   rock.
    1. The blast holes are drilled and cleaned by using the tools.  2.The holes then charged of explosive blasting materials based on  hardness or softness of rock.  3.Dynamite and Ammonium Nitrate are mostly used to charge holes.  1m-depth hole will be charged with 40g of Dynamite and 150g of  Ammonium Nitrate. Remaining portion is filled with clay and tamped.  4.Electric detonators will be used to initiate the primer.  5.Fuse is inserted, kept projecting 15-20 cm out of the rock surface.  6.Thereafter free end of fuse is fired.  7.During operation, blasting mats may be used to suppress dust  and noise, or for fly rock prevention and sometimes to direct the  blast.

                              Blasting mat 122  Pile driving equipment • The process of pile driving involves lifting the piles   into position, holding it to refusal or to a specified   depth. • Driving is accomplished through hammering the pile   top with a hammer. • Equipment are so designed for driven effectively at an   economical cost. • Major pile driving equipment are:          Pile driving rigs          Pile driving hammers          Wagon, truck or trailer, crawler   CONSTRUCTION    EQUIPMENT                                                       123                                                       88  Pile Driving Equipment Piles are installed by a special pile driving device known as a pile hammer. The hammer may be suspended from the boom of a crawler crane, supported on a large frame called a pile driver or carried on a barge for construction in water. In all cases, the hammer is guided between two parallel steel members called leads. The leads may be adjusted at various angles for driving vertical and batter piles.

                                                                   124  Enlist pile driving equipments OR pile   driving hammers.

1. Drop hammer pile driving equipment

2. Single acting hammer pile driving equipment

3. Double acting hammer pile driving equipment

4. Diesel hammer pile driving equipment

5. Vibratory hammer pile driving equipment                                               125 Types of Hammer: Several types of hammers are in use and each of which are different sizes. The hammer types are:

                                                            126 1. Drop hammer: The drop hammer in the pile driving equipment consists of a heavy ram in between the leads. The ram is lifted up to a certain height and released to drop on the pile. This type is slow and therefore not in common use. It is used in the cases where only a small number of piles are driven.

2. Single acting hammer: In a single acting hammer a heavy ram is lifted up by steam or compressed air but dropped by its own weight. The energy of a single acting hammer is equal to the weight of the ram times the height of fall.
3. Double-acting hammer: Double-acting hammers use steam or air to raise the striking parts and also to impart energy during the downstroke in addition to that supplied by gravity. To provide higher frequencies double-acting hammers are usually designed with light rams. Double-acting hammers strike a relatively high-velocity blow compared to singleacting hammers. 127 4. Diesel hammer: The diesel hammer is a small, light weight and highly mobile. To start the operation, the ram is raised, and the fuel is injected. As the ram is released, the ram falls and compresses air and fuel. The air and fuel becomes hot because of the compression and the air-fuel mixture is ignited. The resulting explosion Advances the pile and Lifts the ram. If the pile advance is very great as in soft soils, the ram is not lifted by the explosion sufficiently to ignite the air-fuel mixture on the next cycle, requiring that the ram be again manually lifted.
4. Vibratory hammer: The principle of the vibratory driver is two counter-rotating eccentric weights. The driving unit vibrates at high frequency and provides two vertical impulses, one up and one down. The downward pulse acts with the pile weight to increase the apparent gravity force. These hummers have reduced driving vibrations, reduced noise,Prof.                             and IRFAN NALBAND                                    great speed of penetration. 128  Advantages and disadvantages of each type are summarized    below: Single-acting hammer : They are advantageous when driving heavy piles in compact or hard soils; the heavy ram striking at - tow velocity produces least damage due to impact. The disadvantages are low driving speed and large headroom requirement. Double-acting hammer: They are generally used to drive piles of light or moderate weight in soils of average resistance against driving. This type of hammer can drive piles at fast speed, requires less headroom and can be used to extract piles by turning them [i.e. the double-acting hammer] upside down. Diesel hammer: They are similar in application as double-acting hammers, but driving may become difficult in extremely soft ground. Vibratory hammer: They have fairly good results in silty and clayey deposits. They are used in heavy clays or soils with appreciable numbers of boulders. See above for other advantages.                                                                    129 130  Pile driving rigs

                      131 132  PUMPING EQUIPMENTS

             133 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

                   134 1) Parts of Centrifugal Pump :

1. Impeller- It is wheel or rotor which is provided with series of backward curved blades or vanes. It is mounted on shaft which is coupled to an electric motor which rotates the impeller. It is classified as closed, semi open and open impeller.
2. Casing – It is an air tight chamber which surrounds the impeller.
3. Suction Pipe –It is the pipe which is connected at its upper end to the inlet of the pump or to the centre of the impeller i.e eye. The lower end of the suction pipe dips into liquid in a suction tank.
4. Delivery Pipe- It is a pipe which is connected at its lower end to the outlet of the pump and it delivers the liquid to the required height. On delivery pipe delivery valve is provided to control the flow from the pump into delivery pipe.

2) Working principle of Centrifugal Pump : When certain mass of liquid is made to rotate by an external force it is thrown away from the central axis of rotation and a centrifugal head is impressed which enables it to rise to higher level. Working of centrifugal pump is in 3 stages i. Priming- The operation of filling the casing, impeller and suction pipe upto delivery valve is called priming. Purpose:-To remove the air from suction pipe and the pump. ii. Starting- Before starting first of all check that priming is done and return valve is not in closed condition. iii. Stopping - To stop the pump, delivery valve should be closed partly. Motor is switched off and then value is closed fully.                                                                                               135  Advantages of Centrifugal pump :

1. Small in size, space saving & less capital costs
2. Easy for maintenance
3. No danger creates if discharge v/v is closed while    starting
4. Deal with large volume
5. Able to work medium to low head
6. Able to work medium to low viscous fluid

                                                        136  Reciprocating Pumps

Reciprocating pump is a positive displacement pump. The given  pump is single acting single cylinder pump with air vessel. It can  be used for less discharge at higher heads. Priming is not  required because it is a positive displacement pump.  Reciprocating pumps are used in pumping water in hilly areas.  Reciprocating pumps has lower efficiency compared to  centrifugal pumps.                                                               137  Component part of Reciprocating pump and its functions:- 1) Cylinder: -To guide movement of piston and create negative and positive pressure. 2) Section pipe: -To connect source of water and the cylinder. 3) Delivery pipe: -To receive water from cylinder and discharge it at outlet. 4) Delivery Valve: -To admits flow from the suction pipe into the cylinder and from cylinder into delivery pipe. 5) Rotating crank: -To give linear displacement to connecting rod. 6) Connecting rod: -To connects the piston and the rotating crank.

                                                                                       138  Advantages of Reciprocating pump :

1. High efficiency
2. No priming needed
3. Can deliver water at high pressure
4. Can work in wide pressure range
5. Continuous rate of discharge

                                        139  Diaphragm pumps

It is also known in the industry as a "MUD or SLUDGE" Pump or Membrane pump, they are ideal for the slow seepage applications where a centrifugal pump would ordinarily lose its prime. The positive displacement design and performance is perfect for muddy water, sludge or any water with a high percentage of solids.                                                       140 Diaphragm pump is a positive displacement pump that uses a combination of the reciprocating action of a rubber, thermoplastic or Teflon diaphragm and suitable valves on either side of the diaphragm to pump a fluid .

 Diaphragm pump characteristics:

1. They have good suction lift characteristics, some are    low pressure pumps with low flow rates; others are    capable of higher flow rates.
2. They can handle highly viscous liquids, sludge and    slurries with a relatively high amount of grit and solid    content.
3. Suitable for discharge pressure up to 1,200 bar
4. They have good self priming capabilities.                                                        141  Well point Systems

Well point systems are used to lower groundwater levels to provide stable working conditions. They consist of a series of small diameter wells that are connected by a header pipe to a well point pump. The pump creates a vacuum in the header pipe drawing water up from the ground.

                                                                               142 There are two types of well point system, namely :

1. Single stage well point system
2. Multi-stage well point system

Single stage well point system •Single stage well point system is used when the depth of excavation is less than 4.5 m. •They are effective in granular soils. •By Single stage well point stage method the water table is lowered by about 5m. • This method is suitable to soils having  coefficient of permeability between  10-2 to 10-4 cm/sec.

                                                     143 Single stage well point system: • A well point consists of a pipe about 1 m long and 50 mm in diameter. • It has perforations, which are covered with a screen to prevent    clogging in.  • At the lower end, a jetting nozzle is provided. This nozzle also acts as     a drive point. • A riser pipe having the same diameter as the well point connects the    well point at its bottom end. • The riser pipes are connected to a horizontal pipe, known as HEADER    PIPE, at the ground level. • The HEADER PIPE is connected to a pumping unit. • Once installed pumping is started continuously till the excavation    work is completed.

                                                                      144  Multistage Well Point system

                                 145 • In multi stage well points system, multiple well   points are installed within the area, which is to be   excavated. • The water table is lowered about 5 m by stage one   well point then further lowered by another 5 m by   next multiple stages well points. • In this way the excavation is carried out till the   excavation reaches to about 15 m. • By well point system, excavation greater than 15 m   cannot be made. • These systems are used if excavation exceeds 5 m and   there is a chance of slope failure. • This system the well points are installed in stages.                                                   146 • In the first stage well points are installed to a depth of   around 5 m and put into action till the water table is   lowered by about 5 m. • Multi stage well point system is useful for dewatering   of tunnels and dewatering of trenches. • It’s applicable majorly for covering the large area or on   the large sites.

                                                         147   Stone crushing and Aggregate production                      equipment • Aggregate has to be produced at the site, if the quantity needed is   very large. • Therefore, in any project where concrete requirement is very   high, an aggregate production plant is essential. • Aggregate production consists of two stages 1) Recovery and     2) Processing. • Basic material, such as stone, is recovered from a rock quarry or   from the river bed and processing is done which consists of   crushing, grading, washing and stock piling of aggregate. • Crushers are used mainly to reduce the size of large stone or   rock to smaller uniform sized aggregates required for   concrete    CONSTRUCTION mix.     EQUIPMENT                                                           148                                                           72  Aggregate Production Equipments Aggregate Production is a two stage procedure as follows:

1. Recovery of Stone.
2. Processing of Stone • Recovery of Stone : The recovery of stone is done by   Quarrying of Stone Hills, Rocks or boulders from river bed &   Boulders from Country rocks & etc. • Processing of Stone : Processing is process in which   unshaped & un-sized rocks & boulders are converted into   smaller uniform sized aggregates, as required for concrete   mix or ballast.                                                             149 Processing of rocks is done as follows: • CRUSHING

• GRADING

• WASHING

• STOCK PILING OF AGGREGATE.

                                          150 • CRUSHING: The process of crushing is as follows: • Pressure. • Impact. • Attrition. • Combination of all.

There are various types of crusher as follows:

1. JAW CRUSHER.
2. GYRATORY CRUSHER.
3. CONE CRUSHER.
4. ROLL CRUSHER.
5. HAMMER MILL CRUSHER.                                                  151  JAW CRUSHER

                152 • Jaw Crusher is an primary type of crusher. Operation:

1. Stones are allowed to flow in space between two jaws.
2. One jaw is stationary.
3. One jaw is movable with help of fly wheel which is    eccentrically fixed.
4. Thereby causes crushing.
5. The distance between jaw decreases as it travels down.
6. The stone travels under gravity .
7. Movable jaw is capable of exerting pressure sufficiently    high to crush the hardest rock.
8. Movable jaw is suspended from a shaft mounted on bearing    on the crusher.
9. Jaw plates are made up of manganese steel, which can be    replaced or reversed. 153  Gyratory crusher

                     154 • This is another type of primary crusher. • This type of crusher comprises of a harden steel head known as crusher   head which has a long conical shape, with a trough shaft suspended on   bearing at the top, and an eccentric base to move to and fro. • Thus, as the cone is rotated, in hopper shape shell with broad opening at   top and narrow at end. • The rock is fed into the chamber at the top and as it moves   downward, crushing is done and finally emerges through the bottom gap. • The size of this type of crusher is the width of the receiving opening   measured between the concaves and the crushers head. • It is available in sizes varying from 20cm to 200cm.

  CONSTRUCTION    EQUIPMENT                                                                        155                                                                        76  CONE CRUSHER

1. Cone crusher is used as a    secondary or tertiary    crusher.
2. It has a shorter cone with    smaller inlet & outlet    openings as compared to    the gyratory crusher.
3. It is used for crushing of    medium size stones into the    smaller size.
4. It is capable of producing    large quantities of    uniformly fine crushed    stone.                                  156  ROLL CRUSHER
5. It is also a secondary or tertiary    crusher.
6. It consist of a heavy cast iron frame    equipped with two counter rotating    rollers mounted on two separate    horizontal shafts.
7. Crushed rock from primary crusher    is fed through the gap between the    two roller for further crushing.
8. One of the roller has fixed axis,    whereas one axix can be adjusted    to give required product.
9. This is compactable, light weighted    & low cost crusher.                                            157  HAMMER MILL CRUSHER

                        158 159 1. It can be used as an both Primary & Secondary Crusher.

2. It is consisted of strong casing steel body called as mill, a    horizontal shaft which rotates due to which hammers attached to    shaft also rotates.
3. As stone is fed into the mill, the hammer, which are driven by    motor, move at the high speed, break the stone into smaller pieces.
4. Crushed smaller pieces of stones are collected as a product from    the bottom of the mill.
5. Basic principle if hammer mill is mechanically hammering    process is performed by the driving hammers and due to that    impact stones are broken in to the pieces.                                                                    160  Rod and ball crusher • This are the tertiary crushers. A rod mill consist of a circular steel   drum called as shell. • The interior of the shell is lined with a hard material wearing   surface and rods. • The shell contains a number of steel rods. • The length of these rod is slightly less then the length of the shell. • Crushed stone is fed through the inlet and fine aggregate of the size   of sand is discharged at the other end. • If the rods are replaced by steel balls to provide the impact   required to grind the stones, then crusher is known as the ball mill   crusher. • The size of the balls generally used is 50 mm dia. Size.      CONSTRUCTION       EQUIPMENT                                                                    161                                                                    84  Rod and ball crusher

CONSTRUCTION  EQUIPMENT                                       162                                       85  Air Compressor An air compressor is a device that converts power into potential energy stored in the form of compressed air. By several methods an air compressor forces more and more air into a storage tank, increases the pressure. When tank pressure reaches its upper limit the air compressor shuts off. The compressed air, then stored in the tank until its use. The energy contained in the compressed air can be used for a variety of applications, utilizing the kinetic energy of the air as it is released and the tank depressurizes. When tank pressure reaches its lower limit, the air compressor turns on again and re- pressurizes the tank                                                           163 ROTARY VANE AIR COMPRESSOR:

   YELLOW Colour    shows SPRING

The principle of operation of vane compressor is similar to the hydraulic vane pump. Figure above shows the working principle of Rotary vane compressor. The unbalanced vane compressor consists of spring loaded vanes seating in the slots of the rotor. The pumping action occurs due to movement of the vanes along a cam ring. The rotor is eccentric to the cam ring. As the rotor rotates, the vanes follow the inner surface of the cam ring. The space between the vanes decreases near the outlet due to the eccentricity. This causes compression of the air. These compressors are free from pulsation. If the eccentricity is zero no flow takes place.                                                                          164 CRANES

          165  Applications of Crane

1. A crane is a machine that raises, lowers, and moves things.
2. Cranes can be part of trucks and trains.
3. They can also be part of a building or factory.
4. Cranes are very helpful in lifting heavy objects.
5. People use cranes when normal tools cannot lift the weight.
6. Cranes lift heavy girders and blocks on building sites
7. On construction site cranes are used for lifting and placing of   precast or prefabricated units or structural members.
8. In industries cranes are used for lifting heavy weighted machines,   very heavier manufactured products, raw materials etc..                                                                  166  Definition Crane – Consists of a rotating structure for lifting and lowering horizontally on   rubber tires or crawler treads

Hoist – Used to lift and lower load

Boom – An inclined spar, strut, or other long member supporting the hoisting   tackle

Boom stops – A device used to limit the angle of the boom at its highest position

Brake – To slow or stop motion by friction or power

Block – Sheaves or grooved pulleys in a frame with hook, eye and strap

Jib – Extension attached to the boom point to provide added boom length for   lifting specified loads

                                                                              167 Types of  CRANE            168 1) Mobile Cranes are the 2) Derrick crane is a specific style of lifting machine. It is usually most standard and versatile a fixed crane, meaning it is assembled and disassembled in the type of crane used in location where it is used. These cranes are typically used in construction today. These are locations where items need to be moved from a common initial consist of a steel truss or point to single nearby location, like on shipping platforms and telescopic boom mounted on                                   construction sites. This crane is composed of a tower that pivots at a mobile platform, which could                                   the base, but is unable to actually bend. The tower is generally be a rail, wheeled. In construction situations, it can                                   made up of a web work of steel pipes and braces. The tower is sometimes be difficult to get connected to four lines — these lines allow the crane tower to close to where you need to move freely in any direction. Hook can go up and down freely, the hoist the materials. Moving a only limit on the crane is its amount of line. More lines more will crane into a position that be the capacity. As a result, a derrick crane is often used to raise allows it to lift the material and lower items in a high location, like on high rise buildings. with the correct position. 3) Telescopic Crane 4) Overhead Crane 5) Rough Terrain Crane                                    An overhead crane, also referred A rough terrain crane is Telescopic cranes offer a boom                                    to as a suspended crane, this a crane that is mounted that consists of a number of                                    type is normally used in a on an undercarriage with tubes fitted one inside of the factory, with some of them being other. A hydraulic mechanism four rubber tires,                                    able to lift very heavy designed for operations extends or retracts the tubes to loads. Larger overhead off road. The outriggers increase or decrease the cranes (also known as goliath extend vertically and length of the boom. cranes) can be found in use in horizontally to level and Most construction cranes today shipyards and large outdoor stabilize the crane when are in some form a telescopic manufacturing plants. The hoist hoisting. These types of crane. Except for the lattice is set on a trolley which will cranes are single engine boom crane with is a iron move in one direction along one machines where the constructed frame that is or two beams, which move at same engine is used for bolted together to get the right angles to that direction along powering the height for the hoist elevated or ground level tracks, undercarriage as it is for                                    often mounted along the side of powering the crane.                                    an assembly area. 6) Tower cranes are seen on almost every major construction site throughout the world. Tower cranes can be classified into top-slewing tower cranes and bottom-stewing tower cranes. The main differences are in the manner in which they are erected and dismantled, and in the maximum lifting height.                                 Jib The jib extends horizontally at various lengths depending on the model and configuration of the crane. Hoist and trolley lines run throughout the jib enabling vertical and horizontal movement of the load.                               Trolley To move a load in and out from the cranes centre axis a trolley is employed along the underside of the horizontal jib. A trolley controls the loads radial movement                             Hook-Block A hook or hoist is attached to the hook block assembly. The primary function being for the free rotation and positioning of a load.                             Counter-Jib A cranes drives, drums, gears, electronics, and counter-weights are found on the counter-jib platform. Located behind the operator cab, the counter-jib provides a balancing force to the load on the horizontal jib.                          Counter-weights Balancing the forces on the crane caused by the load is a primary function of the counterweight. Counterweights are fabricated from concrete and come in modular units. The number of counterweights depends on the expected max load capacity, jib length and tower height  Top-Slewing Tower Cranes

1. Top-slewing cranes require a longer duration to erect and dismantle, but   they can be erected virtually up to any height.
2. These cranes are suitable for medium-to high-rise construction projects   where they are needed for longer durations.
3. The main parts of a typical top-slewing crane are undercarriage, mast,   operator's cabin, slewing ring, jib and counter jib.
4. These cranes are usually of stationary type, resting on the concrete or   structural steel foundations, vertical tower of crane (also called mast) is   stationary but at top portion slew arrangement is provide. So that jib can slew   in 360 degree.
5. For additional stability, counter-weights in the form of modular concrete   blocks are also provided in the counter-jib of the crane.
6. Top-slewing tower cranes have a mast (also called tower) with modular,   lattice-type sections. The mast Is erected with the help of another lifting   device.
7. The crane rises in height by addition of sections one by one. Slewing ring   provides the rotating mechanism of the crane and it is located at the top of the   mast just below the boom.
8. In the top-stewing tower crane, only the jib, tower top and operators cabin   rotate.  Top slewing tower crane: Bottom-Slewing Tower Cranes
   1. Bottom-slewing cranes have height limitations although they can be erected and    dismantled very quickly-the reason they are known to be self-erecting or fast-    erecting.
   2. These are suitable for low-rise construction and for short-term projects.
   3. Bottom-slewing tower cranes also consist of undercarriage, slewing ring, slewing    platform, mast and jib.
   4. It has a slewing ring located near the base. Both mast and jib rotate relative to the    base.
   5. Since virtually the entire crane rotates so that anchoring of the crane with some    fixed support is not possible.
   6. That is the reason for the shorter height of a bottom-slewing crane relative to a    top-slewing crane.  Bottom slewing tower crane:  Top Slewing Crane Bottom Slewing Crane
   7. The top slewing crane, also known as slew 1. The bottom slewing crane is another useful crane, can be erected to any height, but it tower crane that can be found at many requires a little more time and effort. construction sites because it can be erected                                                 for limited height and requires less time and                                                 efforts for erection on construction site.
   8. The top slew crane is efficient for medium- 2. It is well-known for its quick and easy high rise construction projects that require a erecting and dismantling. Suitable for tower crane for longer period. projects require a tower crane for short                                                 period.
   9. vertical tower of crane is stationary but at 3. It has a slewing ring located near the base. top portion slew arrangement is provide Both mast and jib rotate relative to the base.
   10. The modular concrete blocks are known as 4. The bottom slewing crane also includes counterweights, and can be added to the undercarriage, slewing platform, slewing counter jib for increased stability. ring, mast section and jib.
   11. The main parts of the slewing crane that 5. The slewing ring is located near the base, can be rotated are the tower top, the which is why this type of slewing crane operator’s cabin and the jib. cannot be fixated.
   12. Figure: As above 6. Figure: As above 177 178 179  HOISTING EQUIPMENTS

Hoisting is lifting a weight from from one point to another point, which is at a resonably far distance.                                               180  HOISTS

Hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift –wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It can be either operated: a. Manually. b. Electrically. c. Pneumatically driven.(Operated by Compressed air/Vacuum.                                                            181  HOISTS Lifting Medium: a. Chain. b. Fiber Rope. c. Wire Rope.

The Load is attached to the hoist by means of Lifting Hook.

                                                              182  BOOM HOISTS

• Used to carry weights on the hooks that are   attached to the special metal ropes designed to   bear maximum loads.

                                                    183  CHAIN HOISTS

• Chain Hoist consist of chain rope & pulley that is used to     move the load from up to down. • This is the most common type of hoist system in most of the     construction & industrial use.                                                               184   ELECTRIC HOISTS

• Electric Hoist is a modernized form of Chain & Boom Hoist. • Used in Industries for fast working. • Saves Labor cost , by handling maximum load at time without   damage threat. • It can move material very fast within the factory premises. • Controlled by either remote or panel.                                                            185   TRACTOR HOISTS

• It consist of a boom, attached to the base of tractor & hook     with rope is installed on the boom that can be operated     through driver controls.

                                                                   186  CRANE HOIST

• Cranes are generally equipped with a hoist, wire ropes, or     chains & sheaves which can be used to both lift & lower the     material & move them horizontally. • Used for lifting heavy loads. • Used for movement of materials in construction Industry.

                                                                  187   FORK LIFT (HOIST)

Fork Lift is also called as Lift Truck, Fork Truck or To-Motor. It is used to transfer the material, Specially pallets from one place to another in an Industrial Premises. Fork lift usually runs on Batteries.                                                                      188  USES OF HOISTS • Man Lifts. • Buck Hoist. • Temporary Elevators. • Builder Hoist. • Passenger Hoist. • Construction Elevators. • To carry from one level to   another quickly.                                  189  BELT CONVEYORS

•Used when material have to be moved over long distance at  fast speed. •Consist of Belt running over a pair of end drum & supported  by series of rollers , called as idlers. • Idlers are supported on conveyor frame. • Middle sag is provided in belt to prevent spillage of material. • Rubber is mostly usedProf. asIRFAN NALBAND                                  conveyor belt. 190  ADVANTAGES OF BELT CONVEYORS •Can handle light & heavy material, dry or wet, fine or coarse & etc. •Can convey material of several tons per hour for any distance ranging several kilometers. •Can carry material Horizontally & Vertically. •Lighter in weight than other types of conveyor. •Discharge can be controlled by the speed of the belt.

                                             191  SCREW CONVEYORS

It consist of a helix mounted on a bearing at the ends & at intermediate points & is driven by a motor from one end. Material enters from one end & is carried to the other end by screwing action of the helix. The maximum length of the screw conveyor is about 65m, with an inclination up to a maximum of 60 degree.                                                                 192  ADVANTAGES OF SCREW CONVEYORS

•Used for handling granular or pulverized (Fine) material. •Quantity of material conveyed is less compared the conveyor size. •Conveying cost is less compared to other conveyors.

                                            193  MODULE

Construction Equipments

  FINISHED                           194