Bio: EXAM III STUDY GUIDE
EXAM III STUDY GUIDE
The exam will consist of 50 questions that are multiple choice, true/false, and matching. The exam is closed note, closed neighbor.
Questions will be from anything discussed in the textbook chapters, video lectures, documentaries and labs with emphasis on the following topics:
List and explain the innate immune system defenses.
First level: physical and chemical barriers
Tears, saliva, skin, large intestine, mucus
Second level: nonspecific defense
Defensive cells and proteins (aka complement system—put holes in bacteria so salt goes in and EXPLODES bacteria)
Phagocytes: white blood cells that destroy foreign cells
Neutrophils respond first; respond to infection and eat foreign cells
Macrophages next; eat *a lot* of foreign cells and dead tissue
Eosinophils eat parasites, or invaders that are too big for other white blood cells
Inflammation and fever
Swelling, especially where immunity cells go
Connective tissue (aka mast cells) release histamine (dialates blood vessels)
Third level: specific defenses
B cells: white blood cells from bone marrow
Can create antibodies through memory B cells (they remember what antigen they fought)
T cells: fighter/killer/destroyer cells
All brawn no brain, directly attack foreign cells that carry antigen
Can’t produce antibodies
Found in thymus
Explain the role and function of the five types of Leukocytes (white blood cells)
Neutrophil- First to fight infection from bacteria and some fungi
Macrophages- same as monocytes but belong in blood vs monocytes that are in the tissues. Both clean up/remove dead cells
Eosinophils - Identify & destroy parasites, cancer cells. Assists basophils with allergic response
Monocytes- defends against infection by cleaning up damaged cells
Basophils- makes the allergic response (coughing, sneezing etc)
Lymphocytes- T Cells, Killer cells and B cells protect the body from viral infections. Produce proteins to assist infection fight
Explain specific and nonspecific immunity.
Non-specific: don’t target specific pathogens
Fight all health challenges; no discrimination
Specific: targets specific enemies
Recognizes foreign cells/pathogens
Memorizes antigen from past exposure
Protects entire body
Explore the role of the skin and accessory structures in relation to innate defenses.
Most important barrier
4 key attributes:
Structure
Outermost layer= dead epithelial cells w/ protein called keratin that creates dry, tough, and elastic barrier against microorganisms
Constantly replenishing self
Acidic pH
pH level of 5 - 6; low pH = hostile for many microorg.
Produces antibodies in sweat glands
Secrete dermcidin: antimicrobial peptide; effective against harmful bacteria and fungi
Compare the complement system, fever, and inflammation.
Complement system: plasma proteins that activate only in presence of infection
Create protein complex in bacteria (holes)
Water and salt enter holes and expands bacteria until it bursts
Inflammation: occurs when tissue is damaged; creates heat, swelling, and pain
Prevent damage from spreading, disposes debris and pathogens, and allows for tissue repair
Fever: abnormally high body temperature which increases metabolic rate which speeds up tissue repair and defense mechanisms
Normal temp. = 97°F- 99°F
Goes above 100° or lasts longer than 2 days, seek medical advice
Relate fever and inflammation to feelings of fatigue during illness.
Tired/fluffy bc immune system working hard fighting known viruses
Describe the role of phagocytes.
First, captures bacterium
engulfs it (eats it)
Encloses it in membrane bound vesicle (in stomach)
Vesicle contains lysosomes, which fuses w/ bacteria (digestive system)
Enzymes in lysomes digest bacteria
Phagocytes poops out digested bacteria
Relate the structures/organs of the lymphatic system to their functions.
Lymphatic system: helps maintain blood volume and interstitial fluid volume in the cardiovascular system; also protects body from diseases
Structures:
lymphatic capillaries: carries lymph (fluid which carries white blood cells, proteins, fats, and sometimes bacteria and virus) to all parts of body
Lymph nodes: remove cellular debris, abnormal cells, and microorganisms
Thymus gland: contains lymphocytes and epithelial cells
Secretes thymosin and thymopoiesis (mature T cells)
Tonsils: lymphatic tissue in throat
Spleen: (1) controls quality of circulating red blood cells by removing bad ones (2) fights infections
Red pulp tissue break down microorganisms w/ macrophages
White pulp tissue contains lymphocytes for foreign pathogens
Explain the role of antigens and antibodies in relation to blood type.
Antigens: generally part of bacteria and fungi; large proteins or polysaccharides
Unique shapes; like a key
Antibodies: proteins that bind w/ antigen to neutralize it
Created by B memory cells
Blood types and antigens and antibodies
O = universal donor
AB= universal receiver
Blood type | Antigen in blood | Antibodies produced | Donor can receive |
---|---|---|---|
A | A | anti-B | A,O |
B | B | anti-A | B,O |
AB | A,B | none | AB, O, A, B |
O | none | anti-A, Anti-B | O |
In other words, think of blood as the head. O is the one giving head while AB is the one receiving head.
Discuss effective ways of protecting the immune system and staying healthy.
Washing hands with soap and water
Exercise
Eat well
Be physically active
Maintain a healthy weight
Get enough sleep
Avoid (too much) alcohol
Quit (or don't start) smoking
Explain the functions of the reproductive system.
Tissues and organs used to create another human being
Ultimate goal: get sperm to fertilize egg
Trace the pathway of sperm through the male reproductive system and the role of the glands that produce semen.
Testes -> epididymis->ductus (vas) deferens-> ejaculatory duct -> prostatic urethra -> penis
Part | Function |
---|---|
Prostate gland | Secretes watery alkaline fluids to raise vaginal pH |
urethra | Muscular tube that carries sperm and urine |
penis | Erectile organ for sexual intercourse |
Seminal vesicle | Secretes fructose and most of the seminal fluid |
Vas deferens | Duct for sperm maturation, storage, and transport |
Bulbourethral gland | Secretes lubricating mucus |
epididymis | Where sperm maturation and storage |
List the functions of the female reproductive organs.
Part | Function |
---|---|
ovary | Site of storage and development of oocytes |
Clitoris | Organ of sexual arousal |
vagina | Organ of sexual intercourse; produces lubricating fluids; also birth canal |
cervix | Lower part of uterus that opens into vagina |
uterus | Hollow chamber where embryo develops |
Oviduct (fallopian tube) | regulates fertilization through sperm guidance and sperm hyperactivation |
Outline the hormonal controls in the male reproductive system.
Testosterone: steroid hormone
Three hormones:
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): stimulates production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); is in the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus secretes GnRH -> stimulates pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH->LH makes interstitial cells produce/secrete testosterone -> FSH enhances sperm formation by stimulating sertoli cells -> Testosterone also stimulates sertoli cells
Describe the two interacting hormonal cycles of the female reproductive system.
Menstrual cycle= ovarian + uterine cycle
Menstrual cycle: consists of ovarian cycle and uterine cycle;
Ovarian cycle: regular pattern of growth, maturation, and release of oocytes (immature eggs)
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone to prepare for fertilized egg
Corpus luteum degenerates after 12 days if fertilization≠ occur
Uterine cycle: series of structural and functional changes that happen to prepare the body for pregnancy
Linked to ovarian cycle
Beginning of menstruation; aka first day of period
List the main categories of sexually transmitted infections or diseases.
Sexually transmitteed infection (STIs):
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): transmitted through sexual contact, gential, oral-genital, or anal-genital
Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, anthropods
Ex.: syphilis, gonorrhea, chlymida, AIDS, Hep B
Describe the treatments for the most common STDs.
Penicillin, antibiotics, vaccines, medicine/drugs
Documentary “Why Sex?”
Explain sexual reproduction in the context of the theory of evolution.
It is the best defense against bacteria, viruses, and other rapidly evolving organisms because it presents new challenges to those entities. “The Red Queen” explanation states it is a race of survival between competitive species.
Why male and female reproductive organs are different if they originate from the same tissues during development.
As explained in a lecture, the reproductive organs are different because of the hormones they receive. DHT is the hormone that produces the development of the genitals, while testosterone is the hormone for sperm development and the penis.
The unusual reproductive strategy of the Texas lizards studied by Jerry Johnson.
Why wild extravagances in nature (such as antlers, bright colors, etc.) are seen in either the male or the female of a species, but not both, in sexually reproducing organisms.
The wild extravagances are seen as attractions to the opposite sex. For example, male peacocks have colorful and wide tails, and the wider and more colorful they are the more healthier they appear. Therefore, they are more desirable.
Why monogamy is important in some sexually reproducing species.
Lower risk of STD
Prevents male partner from leaving after sex (?)
In the video, they explained that the female can’t raise the kids alone and the kids would die; It is a social solution to safely raise kids.
The traditional roles of caregiving to the young and how they may differ. o The similarities and differences in related species (EX: Bonobos and Chimpanzees).
Explain the differences between cleavage, differentiation, and morphogenesis
Cleavage: series of cell divisions without cell growth or differentiation during first four days of following fertilization
Produces ball of identical cells same size as zygote
Differentiation: process where cells become specialized
Morphogenesis: process of changing into a fetus
Layers of different cells-> pre-embryo-> embryo with human-ish features->fetus
Explain the events of fertilization and implantation and when each major event occurs
(in days/weeks).
Week 1-2:
Pre-embryonic stage:
Day 1-3: conception (fertilization of egg, aka zygote) in oviduct
Day 4: morula (32 identical cells resulted from cleavage)
Days 5-7: morula turns to blastocyst, implants in uterine wall
Week 2: blastocyst fills w/ amniotic fluid (for wase and nutrient exchange)
Week 3-8:
Embryo stage: organs and systems established but not fully functional
Placenta (filter) and umbilical cord (lifeline connecting to placenta and embryo’s circulation) created
Week 3: brain and spinal cord in the making and so are muscles, bones, and skin (mesoderm)
Week 4: heart develops, head takes shape, eyes positioned, limb nubs and tail
Weeks 5-8: general vertebrae of human forming. nutrients and waste exchanged even more effectively
Week 6: genitalia begin developing (XX, XY)
Weeks 9-birth:
Fetus stage:
Month 3 (first trimester over): kidenys, limbs, bones/teeth, spleen, liver formed and functioning
Sex can be determined
Month 4: liver and bone marrow create red blood cells and face almost in final form
Months 5: nervous system ans skeletal muscles formed enough for fetus to move. Hair and skin formed. Heart beat can be heard
Month 6 (end of second tri.): lungs surfactant (phospholipids and proteins prevent collapsing) and hear external sounds
Months 7-9: rapid growth and maturation. Lungs and digestive system=functioning
Outline the function of the three germ layers in the embryo and the organs they
eventually develop into.
Endoderm: Innermost Cell Layer; forms digestive and respiratory tract
Ectoderm: Outer Layer; forms skin, nervous system, and parts of face/neck
Mesoderm: Middle Layer; forms muscle, blood vessel, connective tissues and beginning of bones.
Describe the formation and functioning of the placenta.
Placenta: Massive filter for diffusion
Exchanges nutrients, gasses, antibodies, embryonic wastes, and hormones
Can be damaged by HIV, alcohol, and any kind of drugs
Explain how fetal circulation differs from the mothers’ circulation. What materials (i.e. nutrients, waste, gases, etc.) are passed between mother and developing offspring and how are the materials passed?
Nutrients and waste diffuse down concentration gradient between fetus and mother
while in the womb the fetus is incapable of using gas exchange and instead relies on its mother in order to receives its nutrients via the umbilical cord
The oxygen-laden, nutrient-rich blood from the placenta enters the fetus via the umbilical vein.
Some of the blood flows through the liver, but most of it bypasses the liver and joins the inferior vena cava of the fetus via the ductus venosus (venous duct).
In the inferior vena cava, the nutrient-rich blood mixes with the venous blood of the fetus.
Most of the blood that enters the fetal heart must bypass the fetal lungs because they too are not fully developed.
Some of the blood passes from the right atrium to the left atrium through the foramen ovale, and some is shunted from the pulmonary artery directly to the aorta via the ductus arteriosus.
Even though the fetal lungs are not yet functional and the digestive tract is not receiving nutrients, the aortic blood still has sufficient oxygen and nutrients (brought to the fetus via the umbilical vein) to supply all the fetal tissues.
Some of the fetal arterial blood returns to the placenta via the umbilical arteries.
In the placenta, the blood again picks up nutrients and oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide generated by fetal metabolism.
Discuss how hormonal imbalances can affect fetal development
Discuss the developmental risks associated with smoking, drinking, using recreational
and/or prescription drugs during development.b
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Premature birth
Discuss stem cells: what they do for the developing embryo and how they are used in science.
Describe the structure and function of DNA.
DNA is made of nucleotides composed of one sugar, one phosphate, and one nitrogenous base
Functions of DNA:
Replication: the process of copying the cell’s DNA prior to cell division
Transcription: the process of creating a coded message of one gene (a segment in DNA that has the code/recipe for protein(s)) that can be carried out of nucleus
Translation: converting the coded message into proteins useful for cell
Explain the origin of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in our body cells.
One set of 23 chromosomes are from each parent
Explain the difference between somatic cells and gamete cells and the number of
chromosomes each cell contains.
Somatic cells are reproductive cells from humans - 46 chromosomes
Gamete cells are reproductive cells from plants or animals- 23 chromosomes
Define haploid and diploid.
Meiosis cells are haploid cells (4 cells).
Mitosis are diploid cells (2 cells).
Describe and explain the stages of the cell cycle including: interphase, mitosis, meiosis,and cytokinesis. What happens during interphase and cytokinesis?
Meiosis: 4 haploid cells
Prophase 1
Meiosis includes steps very similar to those of mitosis, the main difference being the formation of tetrads in prophase 1
Metaphase 1
Tetrads are pairs of homologous chromosomes that remain close to one another until they are pulled apart in anaphase 1
Anaphase 1
Crossing over offers even more genetic variation as the ends of these chromosomes are close enough to swap material
Telophase 1
Telophase 1 then forms two cells that enclose doubled copies of half the chromosomes of the original diploid cell
The newly formed cells then immediately go into prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II. No DNA replication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II. These phases operate as those in mitosis, resulting in four haploid cells, however in mitosis, there is only PPMAT once.
Interphase
growth period where cells grow and DNA is duplicated in preparation for next cell division
Cytokinesis
end result is 2 cells for mitosis, and 4 daughter cells in meiosis
Describe and explain the stages of mitosis and meiosis. Why are there two rounds of nuclear division in meiosis and only one in mitosis?
Because meiosis is a reproductive cell, and the end result of meiosis produces 4 cells while mitosis produces 2 cells
Describe the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis and the purpose of each type of nuclear division.
Similarities: PPMAT 1st phase has similar way of forming cells
Differences: mitosis produces 2 daughter cells while meiosis produces 4 daughter cells
Define the terms:
Gene, - recipes for specific proteins, section of DNA
allele, - different variations of a gene
dominant, - dominates in determining the phenotype
recessive, - masked by the domain trait
genotype, - what alleles you possess for a trait
phenotype, - physical appearance of a trait
homozygous, - pair of dominant or recessive alleles
and heterozygous. - one of each type of allele
Explain the interaction of dominant and recessive alleles.
DD x Dd
DD | DD |
---|---|
Dd | Dd |
DD x dd
Dd | Dd |
---|---|
Dd | Dd |
Dd x dd
Dd | dd |
---|---|
Dd | dd |
Dd x Dd
DD | Dd |
---|---|
Dd | dd |
Describe how alleles can express phenotypes of complete dominance, incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and polygenic inheritance and give examples.
Dominant allele: overpowers recessive phenotype
Ex.: dimples= dominant, no dimples= recessive
incomplete dominance: heterozygous genotype that results in a phenotype that is “in between” of two homozygous phenotypes
Ex.: straight hair + curly hair = wavy hair
Co-dominance: products of both alleles expressed equally
Ex.: sickle cell anemia; if two ppl have sickle cell trait and have children, ea. Child will have 25% chance of being normal, 50% chance having the trait, and 25% chance of having sickle cell amenia
poly genic inheritance: phenotypes that are influenced by many genes; isn’t exact copy of parents’ genes
Ex.: body type, skin color, height, etc.
Explain sex-linked traits and give examples.
sex-linked traits occur on the x chromosome
women can be carriers or affected by sex-linxed traits
men on the other hand are affected by the sex-linked since they only have one x chromosome
examples of sex-linked traits are fragile x, hemophilia, color blindness, and klinefelter syndrome
Set up and analyze a Punnett square for autosomal traits and sex-linked traits.
Autosomal traits: from chromosomes 1 - 22, not including sex chromosomes
Ex. : baldness (N= normal, n= pattern baldness)
Sex-linked traits:
Ex.: X-linked disease: hemophilia (h= blood doesnt clot, H= blood clots)
Nn x nn
Nn | nn |
---|---|
Nn | nn |
Hh x Hh
HH | Hh |
---|---|
Hh | hh |
Determine the probability of offspring having a particular genotype and/or phenotype based on the parents’ genotype and/or phenotype.
Explain what mutation is and the role of mutation in variation within the human
population.
definition: a change in the DNA base pair sequence of a cell.
role: to provide challenges to environmental stressors such as competitors, virus, and pathogens
Explain chromosomal (genetic) disorders and describe those discussed in lecture and lab including examples of harmless and deleterious mutations and sex-linked disorders.
chromosomal disorders refers to those controlled by genes on the autosomes
sex-linked disorders occur on the x chromosome
harmless: tongue rolling, freckles, dimples
deleterious: sickle cell disease, baldness
sex-linked disorders: fragile x and klinefelter syndrome, hemophilia, color blindness
EXAM III STUDY GUIDE
The exam will consist of 50 questions that are multiple choice, true/false, and matching. The exam is closed note, closed neighbor.
Questions will be from anything discussed in the textbook chapters, video lectures, documentaries and labs with emphasis on the following topics:
List and explain the innate immune system defenses.
First level: physical and chemical barriers
Tears, saliva, skin, large intestine, mucus
Second level: nonspecific defense
Defensive cells and proteins (aka complement system—put holes in bacteria so salt goes in and EXPLODES bacteria)
Phagocytes: white blood cells that destroy foreign cells
Neutrophils respond first; respond to infection and eat foreign cells
Macrophages next; eat *a lot* of foreign cells and dead tissue
Eosinophils eat parasites, or invaders that are too big for other white blood cells
Inflammation and fever
Swelling, especially where immunity cells go
Connective tissue (aka mast cells) release histamine (dialates blood vessels)
Third level: specific defenses
B cells: white blood cells from bone marrow
Can create antibodies through memory B cells (they remember what antigen they fought)
T cells: fighter/killer/destroyer cells
All brawn no brain, directly attack foreign cells that carry antigen
Can’t produce antibodies
Found in thymus
Explain the role and function of the five types of Leukocytes (white blood cells)
Neutrophil- First to fight infection from bacteria and some fungi
Macrophages- same as monocytes but belong in blood vs monocytes that are in the tissues. Both clean up/remove dead cells
Eosinophils - Identify & destroy parasites, cancer cells. Assists basophils with allergic response
Monocytes- defends against infection by cleaning up damaged cells
Basophils- makes the allergic response (coughing, sneezing etc)
Lymphocytes- T Cells, Killer cells and B cells protect the body from viral infections. Produce proteins to assist infection fight
Explain specific and nonspecific immunity.
Non-specific: don’t target specific pathogens
Fight all health challenges; no discrimination
Specific: targets specific enemies
Recognizes foreign cells/pathogens
Memorizes antigen from past exposure
Protects entire body
Explore the role of the skin and accessory structures in relation to innate defenses.
Most important barrier
4 key attributes:
Structure
Outermost layer= dead epithelial cells w/ protein called keratin that creates dry, tough, and elastic barrier against microorganisms
Constantly replenishing self
Acidic pH
pH level of 5 - 6; low pH = hostile for many microorg.
Produces antibodies in sweat glands
Secrete dermcidin: antimicrobial peptide; effective against harmful bacteria and fungi
Compare the complement system, fever, and inflammation.
Complement system: plasma proteins that activate only in presence of infection
Create protein complex in bacteria (holes)
Water and salt enter holes and expands bacteria until it bursts
Inflammation: occurs when tissue is damaged; creates heat, swelling, and pain
Prevent damage from spreading, disposes debris and pathogens, and allows for tissue repair
Fever: abnormally high body temperature which increases metabolic rate which speeds up tissue repair and defense mechanisms
Normal temp. = 97°F- 99°F
Goes above 100° or lasts longer than 2 days, seek medical advice
Relate fever and inflammation to feelings of fatigue during illness.
Tired/fluffy bc immune system working hard fighting known viruses
Describe the role of phagocytes.
First, captures bacterium
engulfs it (eats it)
Encloses it in membrane bound vesicle (in stomach)
Vesicle contains lysosomes, which fuses w/ bacteria (digestive system)
Enzymes in lysomes digest bacteria
Phagocytes poops out digested bacteria
Relate the structures/organs of the lymphatic system to their functions.
Lymphatic system: helps maintain blood volume and interstitial fluid volume in the cardiovascular system; also protects body from diseases
Structures:
lymphatic capillaries: carries lymph (fluid which carries white blood cells, proteins, fats, and sometimes bacteria and virus) to all parts of body
Lymph nodes: remove cellular debris, abnormal cells, and microorganisms
Thymus gland: contains lymphocytes and epithelial cells
Secretes thymosin and thymopoiesis (mature T cells)
Tonsils: lymphatic tissue in throat
Spleen: (1) controls quality of circulating red blood cells by removing bad ones (2) fights infections
Red pulp tissue break down microorganisms w/ macrophages
White pulp tissue contains lymphocytes for foreign pathogens
Explain the role of antigens and antibodies in relation to blood type.
Antigens: generally part of bacteria and fungi; large proteins or polysaccharides
Unique shapes; like a key
Antibodies: proteins that bind w/ antigen to neutralize it
Created by B memory cells
Blood types and antigens and antibodies
O = universal donor
AB= universal receiver
Blood type | Antigen in blood | Antibodies produced | Donor can receive |
---|---|---|---|
A | A | anti-B | A,O |
B | B | anti-A | B,O |
AB | A,B | none | AB, O, A, B |
O | none | anti-A, Anti-B | O |
In other words, think of blood as the head. O is the one giving head while AB is the one receiving head.
Discuss effective ways of protecting the immune system and staying healthy.
Washing hands with soap and water
Exercise
Eat well
Be physically active
Maintain a healthy weight
Get enough sleep
Avoid (too much) alcohol
Quit (or don't start) smoking
Explain the functions of the reproductive system.
Tissues and organs used to create another human being
Ultimate goal: get sperm to fertilize egg
Trace the pathway of sperm through the male reproductive system and the role of the glands that produce semen.
Testes -> epididymis->ductus (vas) deferens-> ejaculatory duct -> prostatic urethra -> penis
Part | Function |
---|---|
Prostate gland | Secretes watery alkaline fluids to raise vaginal pH |
urethra | Muscular tube that carries sperm and urine |
penis | Erectile organ for sexual intercourse |
Seminal vesicle | Secretes fructose and most of the seminal fluid |
Vas deferens | Duct for sperm maturation, storage, and transport |
Bulbourethral gland | Secretes lubricating mucus |
epididymis | Where sperm maturation and storage |
List the functions of the female reproductive organs.
Part | Function |
---|---|
ovary | Site of storage and development of oocytes |
Clitoris | Organ of sexual arousal |
vagina | Organ of sexual intercourse; produces lubricating fluids; also birth canal |
cervix | Lower part of uterus that opens into vagina |
uterus | Hollow chamber where embryo develops |
Oviduct (fallopian tube) | regulates fertilization through sperm guidance and sperm hyperactivation |
Outline the hormonal controls in the male reproductive system.
Testosterone: steroid hormone
Three hormones:
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): stimulates production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); is in the hypothalamus
Hypothalamus secretes GnRH -> stimulates pituitary gland to secrete LH and FSH->LH makes interstitial cells produce/secrete testosterone -> FSH enhances sperm formation by stimulating sertoli cells -> Testosterone also stimulates sertoli cells
Describe the two interacting hormonal cycles of the female reproductive system.
Menstrual cycle= ovarian + uterine cycle
Menstrual cycle: consists of ovarian cycle and uterine cycle;
Ovarian cycle: regular pattern of growth, maturation, and release of oocytes (immature eggs)
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone to prepare for fertilized egg
Corpus luteum degenerates after 12 days if fertilization≠ occur
Uterine cycle: series of structural and functional changes that happen to prepare the body for pregnancy
Linked to ovarian cycle
Beginning of menstruation; aka first day of period
List the main categories of sexually transmitted infections or diseases.
Sexually transmitteed infection (STIs):
Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs): transmitted through sexual contact, gential, oral-genital, or anal-genital
Viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, anthropods
Ex.: syphilis, gonorrhea, chlymida, AIDS, Hep B
Describe the treatments for the most common STDs.
Penicillin, antibiotics, vaccines, medicine/drugs
Documentary “Why Sex?”
Explain sexual reproduction in the context of the theory of evolution.
It is the best defense against bacteria, viruses, and other rapidly evolving organisms because it presents new challenges to those entities. “The Red Queen” explanation states it is a race of survival between competitive species.
Why male and female reproductive organs are different if they originate from the same tissues during development.
As explained in a lecture, the reproductive organs are different because of the hormones they receive. DHT is the hormone that produces the development of the genitals, while testosterone is the hormone for sperm development and the penis.
The unusual reproductive strategy of the Texas lizards studied by Jerry Johnson.
Why wild extravagances in nature (such as antlers, bright colors, etc.) are seen in either the male or the female of a species, but not both, in sexually reproducing organisms.
The wild extravagances are seen as attractions to the opposite sex. For example, male peacocks have colorful and wide tails, and the wider and more colorful they are the more healthier they appear. Therefore, they are more desirable.
Why monogamy is important in some sexually reproducing species.
Lower risk of STD
Prevents male partner from leaving after sex (?)
In the video, they explained that the female can’t raise the kids alone and the kids would die; It is a social solution to safely raise kids.
The traditional roles of caregiving to the young and how they may differ. o The similarities and differences in related species (EX: Bonobos and Chimpanzees).
Explain the differences between cleavage, differentiation, and morphogenesis
Cleavage: series of cell divisions without cell growth or differentiation during first four days of following fertilization
Produces ball of identical cells same size as zygote
Differentiation: process where cells become specialized
Morphogenesis: process of changing into a fetus
Layers of different cells-> pre-embryo-> embryo with human-ish features->fetus
Explain the events of fertilization and implantation and when each major event occurs
(in days/weeks).
Week 1-2:
Pre-embryonic stage:
Day 1-3: conception (fertilization of egg, aka zygote) in oviduct
Day 4: morula (32 identical cells resulted from cleavage)
Days 5-7: morula turns to blastocyst, implants in uterine wall
Week 2: blastocyst fills w/ amniotic fluid (for wase and nutrient exchange)
Week 3-8:
Embryo stage: organs and systems established but not fully functional
Placenta (filter) and umbilical cord (lifeline connecting to placenta and embryo’s circulation) created
Week 3: brain and spinal cord in the making and so are muscles, bones, and skin (mesoderm)
Week 4: heart develops, head takes shape, eyes positioned, limb nubs and tail
Weeks 5-8: general vertebrae of human forming. nutrients and waste exchanged even more effectively
Week 6: genitalia begin developing (XX, XY)
Weeks 9-birth:
Fetus stage:
Month 3 (first trimester over): kidenys, limbs, bones/teeth, spleen, liver formed and functioning
Sex can be determined
Month 4: liver and bone marrow create red blood cells and face almost in final form
Months 5: nervous system ans skeletal muscles formed enough for fetus to move. Hair and skin formed. Heart beat can be heard
Month 6 (end of second tri.): lungs surfactant (phospholipids and proteins prevent collapsing) and hear external sounds
Months 7-9: rapid growth and maturation. Lungs and digestive system=functioning
Outline the function of the three germ layers in the embryo and the organs they
eventually develop into.
Endoderm: Innermost Cell Layer; forms digestive and respiratory tract
Ectoderm: Outer Layer; forms skin, nervous system, and parts of face/neck
Mesoderm: Middle Layer; forms muscle, blood vessel, connective tissues and beginning of bones.
Describe the formation and functioning of the placenta.
Placenta: Massive filter for diffusion
Exchanges nutrients, gasses, antibodies, embryonic wastes, and hormones
Can be damaged by HIV, alcohol, and any kind of drugs
Explain how fetal circulation differs from the mothers’ circulation. What materials (i.e. nutrients, waste, gases, etc.) are passed between mother and developing offspring and how are the materials passed?
Nutrients and waste diffuse down concentration gradient between fetus and mother
while in the womb the fetus is incapable of using gas exchange and instead relies on its mother in order to receives its nutrients via the umbilical cord
The oxygen-laden, nutrient-rich blood from the placenta enters the fetus via the umbilical vein.
Some of the blood flows through the liver, but most of it bypasses the liver and joins the inferior vena cava of the fetus via the ductus venosus (venous duct).
In the inferior vena cava, the nutrient-rich blood mixes with the venous blood of the fetus.
Most of the blood that enters the fetal heart must bypass the fetal lungs because they too are not fully developed.
Some of the blood passes from the right atrium to the left atrium through the foramen ovale, and some is shunted from the pulmonary artery directly to the aorta via the ductus arteriosus.
Even though the fetal lungs are not yet functional and the digestive tract is not receiving nutrients, the aortic blood still has sufficient oxygen and nutrients (brought to the fetus via the umbilical vein) to supply all the fetal tissues.
Some of the fetal arterial blood returns to the placenta via the umbilical arteries.
In the placenta, the blood again picks up nutrients and oxygen and gets rid of carbon dioxide generated by fetal metabolism.
Discuss how hormonal imbalances can affect fetal development
Discuss the developmental risks associated with smoking, drinking, using recreational
and/or prescription drugs during development.b
Fetal alcohol syndrome
Premature birth
Discuss stem cells: what they do for the developing embryo and how they are used in science.
Describe the structure and function of DNA.
DNA is made of nucleotides composed of one sugar, one phosphate, and one nitrogenous base
Functions of DNA:
Replication: the process of copying the cell’s DNA prior to cell division
Transcription: the process of creating a coded message of one gene (a segment in DNA that has the code/recipe for protein(s)) that can be carried out of nucleus
Translation: converting the coded message into proteins useful for cell
Explain the origin of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in our body cells.
One set of 23 chromosomes are from each parent
Explain the difference between somatic cells and gamete cells and the number of
chromosomes each cell contains.
Somatic cells are reproductive cells from humans - 46 chromosomes
Gamete cells are reproductive cells from plants or animals- 23 chromosomes
Define haploid and diploid.
Meiosis cells are haploid cells (4 cells).
Mitosis are diploid cells (2 cells).
Describe and explain the stages of the cell cycle including: interphase, mitosis, meiosis,and cytokinesis. What happens during interphase and cytokinesis?
Meiosis: 4 haploid cells
Prophase 1
Meiosis includes steps very similar to those of mitosis, the main difference being the formation of tetrads in prophase 1
Metaphase 1
Tetrads are pairs of homologous chromosomes that remain close to one another until they are pulled apart in anaphase 1
Anaphase 1
Crossing over offers even more genetic variation as the ends of these chromosomes are close enough to swap material
Telophase 1
Telophase 1 then forms two cells that enclose doubled copies of half the chromosomes of the original diploid cell
The newly formed cells then immediately go into prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II. No DNA replication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II. These phases operate as those in mitosis, resulting in four haploid cells, however in mitosis, there is only PPMAT once.
Interphase
growth period where cells grow and DNA is duplicated in preparation for next cell division
Cytokinesis
end result is 2 cells for mitosis, and 4 daughter cells in meiosis
Describe and explain the stages of mitosis and meiosis. Why are there two rounds of nuclear division in meiosis and only one in mitosis?
Because meiosis is a reproductive cell, and the end result of meiosis produces 4 cells while mitosis produces 2 cells
Describe the similarities and differences between mitosis and meiosis and the purpose of each type of nuclear division.
Similarities: PPMAT 1st phase has similar way of forming cells
Differences: mitosis produces 2 daughter cells while meiosis produces 4 daughter cells
Define the terms:
Gene, - recipes for specific proteins, section of DNA
allele, - different variations of a gene
dominant, - dominates in determining the phenotype
recessive, - masked by the domain trait
genotype, - what alleles you possess for a trait
phenotype, - physical appearance of a trait
homozygous, - pair of dominant or recessive alleles
and heterozygous. - one of each type of allele
Explain the interaction of dominant and recessive alleles.
DD x Dd
DD | DD |
---|---|
Dd | Dd |
DD x dd
Dd | Dd |
---|---|
Dd | Dd |
Dd x dd
Dd | dd |
---|---|
Dd | dd |
Dd x Dd
DD | Dd |
---|---|
Dd | dd |
Describe how alleles can express phenotypes of complete dominance, incomplete dominance, co-dominance, and polygenic inheritance and give examples.
Dominant allele: overpowers recessive phenotype
Ex.: dimples= dominant, no dimples= recessive
incomplete dominance: heterozygous genotype that results in a phenotype that is “in between” of two homozygous phenotypes
Ex.: straight hair + curly hair = wavy hair
Co-dominance: products of both alleles expressed equally
Ex.: sickle cell anemia; if two ppl have sickle cell trait and have children, ea. Child will have 25% chance of being normal, 50% chance having the trait, and 25% chance of having sickle cell amenia
poly genic inheritance: phenotypes that are influenced by many genes; isn’t exact copy of parents’ genes
Ex.: body type, skin color, height, etc.
Explain sex-linked traits and give examples.
sex-linked traits occur on the x chromosome
women can be carriers or affected by sex-linxed traits
men on the other hand are affected by the sex-linked since they only have one x chromosome
examples of sex-linked traits are fragile x, hemophilia, color blindness, and klinefelter syndrome
Set up and analyze a Punnett square for autosomal traits and sex-linked traits.
Autosomal traits: from chromosomes 1 - 22, not including sex chromosomes
Ex. : baldness (N= normal, n= pattern baldness)
Sex-linked traits:
Ex.: X-linked disease: hemophilia (h= blood doesnt clot, H= blood clots)
Nn x nn
Nn | nn |
---|---|
Nn | nn |
Hh x Hh
HH | Hh |
---|---|
Hh | hh |
Determine the probability of offspring having a particular genotype and/or phenotype based on the parents’ genotype and/or phenotype.
Explain what mutation is and the role of mutation in variation within the human
population.
definition: a change in the DNA base pair sequence of a cell.
role: to provide challenges to environmental stressors such as competitors, virus, and pathogens
Explain chromosomal (genetic) disorders and describe those discussed in lecture and lab including examples of harmless and deleterious mutations and sex-linked disorders.
chromosomal disorders refers to those controlled by genes on the autosomes
sex-linked disorders occur on the x chromosome
harmless: tongue rolling, freckles, dimples
deleterious: sickle cell disease, baldness
sex-linked disorders: fragile x and klinefelter syndrome, hemophilia, color blindness