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Chapter 3 - Vocabulary Flashcards: Human Development

Meaning of Development

  • Development encompasses not only physical changes but also changes in thinking, language use, and social relationships from conception to death.
  • Changes are integrated and occur across the whole person, not confined to one domain.
  • Development is the pattern of progressive, orderly, and predictable changes beginning at conception and continuing throughout life.
  • It includes both growth and decline (e.g., observed in old age).
  • Development is shaped by an interplay of biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes.
  • Cognitive processes involve mental activities such as knowing, perception, attention, problem solving, etc.
  • Socio-emotional processes involve changes in interactions, emotions, and personality.
  • These processes collectively influence development across the entire life-span.

Life-Span Perspective on Development

  • Development is lifelong, taking place across all age groups from conception to old age.
  • It includes gains and losses that interact dynamically across the life-span (change in one aspect accompanies changes in others).
  • Biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes are interwoven throughout life.
  • Development is multi-directional: experiences can increase wisdom with age even as performance on some tasks requiring speed may decline (e.g., running) with age.
  • Development is highly plastic: within-person modifiability exists in psychological development; plasticity varies among individuals; skills can be improved across the life span.
  • Development is influenced by historical conditions (e.g., experiences of 20-year-olds during the Indian freedom struggle would differ from today).
  • Development is a concern of multiple disciplines.
  • Individuals respond to contexts that include inherited factors, physical environment, social/historical/cultural contexts; Life events (e.g., death of a parent, accidents, earthquakes) affect the life course, as do positive influences (e.g., awards, good jobs).
  • People continually change with changing contexts.

Growth, Development, Evolution and Maturation

  • Growth: increase in size of body parts or the organism; can be measured (e.g., height, weight).
  • Development: a process of growing and changing throughout the life cycle; has direction and relates to what precedes and what follows; not all temporary changes (e.g., brief illness) count as development.
  • Development includes multiple kinds of changes: growth (size), changes in proportion (child to adult), changes in features (e.g., loss of baby teeth); pace and scope vary.
  • Maturation: changes following an orderly sequence largely dictated by genetic blueprint, producing commonalities in growth and development (e.g., sit without support by 7 ext{ months}, stand with support by 8 ext{ months}, walk by 1 ext{ year}).
  • Evolution: species-specific changes; natural selection favors individuals best adapted to survive and reproduce; changes passed to subsequent generations within a species; proceeds slowly.
  • Emergence of humans from great apes took about 14\text{ million years}.

Factors Influencing Development

  • We inherit genetic codes from our parents; a fertilised egg grows into a human due to genetic information, not into another species.
  • Genetic transmission is complex; it is not possible to possess all traits provided by our genetic structure.
  • Genotype: actual genetic material; Phenotype: observable characteristics expressed by genotype.
  • Observable traits result from the interaction between inherited traits and the environment.
  • Genes provide a distinct blueprint and timetable for development.
  • Genes do not act in isolation; development occurs within the context of the environment.
  • Sandra Scarr (1992) posits that the environment provided by parents depends, to some extent, on their own genetic predispositions.
  • Interactions with the environment change from infancy through adolescence.
  • Environmental influences are as complex as the genes we inherit.

Context of Development

  • Development never occurs in a vacuum; it is embedded in a sociocultural context and can be altered by the environment at any life stage.
  • Bronfenbrenner’s ecological/contextual view emphasizes environmental factors in development:
    • Microsystem: the immediate environment where the child lives (family, peers, teachers, neighbourhood) and direct interactions occur.
    • Mesosystem: relations between these contexts (e.g., how a child’s parents relate to teachers).
    • Exosystem: settings in which the child does not participate directly but influence the child’s immediate environment.
    • Macrosystem: culture in which the individual lives.
    • Chronosystem: life-course events and socio-historic circumstances (e.g., divorce, economic setbacks) affecting the child.
  • Durganand Sinha (1977) presents an ecological model for Indian context:
    • Two concentric layers: an upper/visible layer (home, school, peers) and surrounding layers (broader ecological environment).
    • These factors interact continuously and influence one another; some influences may not be visible.
    • The surrounding ecological layer can change over the lifespan and may have different consequences for different individuals.

Overview of Developmental Stages

  • Development is commonly described in terms of periods or stages; variation arises because people are in different life stages.
  • Developmental stages are typically temporary and characterized by a dominant feature or leading characteristic.
  • At each stage, individuals progress toward a goal or ability that is expected to be achieved in a given order before moving to the next stage.
  • Some behaviors and skills are more readily learned at specific stages.
  • Developmental tasks are the social expectations associated with each stage of development.

Prenatal Stage

  • Prenatal period: conception to birth; lasts about 40\text{ weeks}.
  • Genetic and environmental factors influence development during prenatal life.
  • Maternal characteristics affect prenatal development, including age, nutrition, and emotional state.
  • Disease or infection in the mother can adversely affect prenatal development.
  • Teratogens are environmental agents that cause deviations in normal development which can lead to abnormalities or death:
    • Drug intake during pregnancy may harm the fetus and increase congenital abnormalities.
    • Radiation and certain chemicals near industrial areas can cause permanent genetic changes.
    • Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes (e.g., CO, mercury, lead) pose dangers to the unborn child.

Infancy

  • Brain development occurs rapidly before and after birth; neural connections form quickly.

  • Neonates (newborns) are not as helpless as often assumed: within the first week, they can localize sound, distinguish their mother’s voice, and imitate simple gestures (tongue protrusion, mouth opening).

  • Motor Development

    • Movements are governed by reflexes: automatic, built-in responses that are survival mechanisms and foundations for later motor development.
    • Some reflexes persist throughout life (e.g., coughing, blinking, yawning).

  • Sensory Abilities

    • Newborns can recognize their mother’s voice within hours and have other sensory capabilities.
    • Visual acuity at birth is lower; by 6\text{ months} it improves; around 12\text{ months} vision approximates adult 20/20.
    • Color vision develops over the first months; may distinguish red from white; full color vision by 3\text{ months}.
    • Hearing is present at birth.
    • Newborns respond to touch and can feel pain.
    • Smell and taste are present.

  • Cognitive Development

    • Piaget: infants actively construct understanding; learn through interaction with the environment; stage progression across infancy.
    • In the first two years, infants experience the world via senses and motor interactions; object permanence is not present initially.
    • Verbal communication foundations begin in infancy.

  • Language Development

    • Vocalization starts with babbling between 3\text{ and }6\text{ months}.

  • Socio-emotional Development

    • Babies are social from birth; prefer familiar faces and respond to caregiver presence with cooing/gurgling.
    • By 6-8\text{ months}, mobility increases and preference for mother’s company grows.
    • Attachment: emotional bond with caregivers; contact-comfort is important; nourishment alone is not sufficient.
    • Infants form attachment with caregivers who consistently reciprocate signals of love and affection.
    • Erikson (first year): trust vs. mistrust; trust develops with physical comfort and a sense of world as secure.
    • Responsive, sensitive parenting fosters trust and exploration; insensitive parenting can lead to self-doubt.
    • Securely attached infants respond positively when held and explore; insecure attachment leads to anxiety and distress when separated.
    • A warm, interactive relationship with caregivers is foundational to healthy development.

Childhood

  • Physical Development

    • Two guiding principles:
    • Cephalocaudal progression: from head to tail; upper body control precedes lower body.
    • Proximodistal progression: from center to extremities; trunk control precedes limbs.
    • Early reaching involves whole-body movement; with growth, control becomes more localized to limbs.
    • Brain/head growth is rapid in childhood; brain development supports eye-hand coordination, writing, etc.
    • As the body grows, children appear slimmer as the trunk elongates and body fat decreases.

  • Motor Development

    • Gross motor skills: use of arms/legs; increased confidence and purposeful movement.
    • Handedness develops (left or right).

  • Cognitive Development

    • Object permanence improves; children begin to use mental symbols to represent objects.
    • Preoperational Thought (Piaget): children can mentally represent objects not present; development of symbolic thought expands mental world; egocentrism, animism, and intuitive thought dominate.
    • Egocentrism: difficulty taking others’ viewpoints; animism: believing things are living (as themselves).
    • Centration: focus on a single aspect of an object or event; lack of conservation.
    • Between 7\text{ and }11\text{ years} (middle to late childhood): shift to Concrete Operational Thought; mental operations enable reversal and decentering; flexible thinking; multiple viewpoints.
    • Concrete operations: reversible mental actions; better understanding of relationships among different properties; can view things from multiple perspectives; abstract thinking remains limited.
    • Cognitive development supports language acquisition.

  • Socio-emotional Development

    • Important dimensions: self, gender, and moral development.
    • Through socialization, children develop a sense of self and identify with others.
    • Increasing independence leads to self-initiated activities and personal initiative (Erikson).
    • Self-understanding evolves from physical traits to psychological and social aspects; social comparison becomes part of self-concept.
    • School expands social world beyond family; peers increasingly shape development.

  • Moral Development

    • Distinguishing right from wrong; feelings of guilt; perspective-taking; helping others.
    • Kohlberg’s stages of moral development suggest age-related progression in moral reasoning.
    • Early stages: rules are absolute and followed to win approval; moral thinking is inflexible.
    • By late childhood, reasoning becomes more coordinated and language allows logical thought; social systems like family/peers become more involved.

Challenges of Adolescence

  • The term adolescence derives from the Latin adolescere, meaning “to grow into maturity.” It is a transitional period between childhood and adulthood.

  • Puberty marks the onset of adolescence, with biological sexual maturation; psychological and social dimensions vary by culture.

  • Adolescence is not universally experienced as problematic; cultural context shapes the experience.

  • Physical Development

    • Puberty: sexual maturation; production of primary and secondary sexual characteristics; hormonal changes drive physical changes.
    • In boys: accelerated growth, facial hair, voice changes.
    • Psychological changes accompany puberty; increased interest in opposite sex and sexuality; awareness of bodily changes and social emphasis on sexuality; misconceptions abound; communication barriers can arise.
    • Adolescent sexual identity and orientation become important developmental tasks.
    • Realistic body image is important; interactions between biology and social expectations influence self-perception.

  • Cognitive Developmental Changes

    • Formal operational thought appears around 11-15\text{ years}: abstract reasoning beyond concrete experiences; hypothetical-deductive reasoning.
    • Adolescents think about ideal characteristics for themselves and others; compare self to ideals.
    • Reasoning becomes more systematic in problem solving.
    • Moral reasoning influenced by cognitive development; rules may be seen as flexible rather than absolute.

  • Social and Identity Development

    • Identity formation: who you are, what you value, commitments, beliefs.
    • Primary task: form an identity separate from parents; possible identity conflict with parents and self; identity diffusion/ confusion may lead to isolation or loss of identity.
    • Autonomy-seeking teens may be torn between independence and dependence on parents.
    • Identity formation is influenced by family relationships, peers, and vocational aspirations.
    • Career guidance and counselling in schools support adolescent identity and decision-making.

  • Some Major Concerns in Adolescence
    1) Delinquency: range from socially unacceptable conduct to criminal acts; linked to negative self-identity, lower trust, and lower achievement; associated with low parental support, poor discipline, family discord; delinquency is not necessarily permanent.
    2) Substance Abuse: vulnerability to smoking, alcohol, and drugs; peer pressure and desire for acceptance; can hinder coping skills and responsible decision-making; nicotine addiction is difficult to overcome; vulnerability linked with low self-esteem and low achievement expectations; UNDCP example cited for NGO programs.
    3) Eating Disorders: increased self-focus and body-image concerns; Anorexia Nervosa (undue pursuit of thinness via starvation) and Bulimia (binge-eating followed by purging); more common among females and urban settings; media influence contributes to body-image pressures.

Adulthood and Old Age

Adulthood

  • An adult is typically viewed as someone who is responsible, mature, self-supporting, and well integrated into society.
  • Timing of adult role attainment varies between individuals, indicating shifts in what is expected or typical.

1) Career and Work

  • Earning a living, choosing an occupation, and developing a career are central themes in the twenties and thirties.
  • Entering work life is challenging: adjusting to roles, proving competence, dealing with competition, and meeting expectations from employers and oneself.
  • Beginning new roles and responsibilities; career development and evaluation are important tasks of adulthood.

2) Marriage, Parenthood, and Family

  • Adjustments when entering marriage involve getting to know the partner, reconciling differences, and negotiating likes/dislikes.
  • Marriage and parenthood can be stressful transitions but are often accompanied by love for a child.
  • Parenting is affected by factors such as number of children, social support, and couple happiness.
  • Death of a spouse or divorce can create family structure changes; single parenting may emerge.
  • Women increasingly work outside the home, creating dual-earner families; stressors of work-family balance are common.
  • Parenting presents opportunities for growth and satisfaction and for guiding the next generation.

3) Changes in the Body (Middle Age and Beyond)

  • Physical changes during middle age include gradual deterioration in vision and glare sensitivity, hearing loss, and changes in appearance (wrinkles, gray hair, weight gain).

4) Cognitive Abilities

  • Some cognitive abilities decline with age; others remain stable or improve.
  • Memory decline is more notable for long-term memory than for short-term memory; immediate recall can be slower.
  • Wisdom and certain types of knowledge may improve with age; significant individual differences exist in intelligence across the lifespan.

Old Age

  • Old age outcomes are influenced by socioeconomic conditions, health care access, attitudes, societal expectations, and available support.
  • Retirement marks a significant transition from active work life.
  • Older adults must adapt to changes in family structure and new roles; children may become independent.
  • Loneliness and dependence on others can create feelings of hopelessness or depression for some.
  • The elderly often seek security and belonging and benefit from social support and connectedness.
  • The death of a spouse is a particularly difficult loss, associated with grief, loneliness, depression, financial strain, and health risks.

Ethical, Philosophical, and Practical Implications (Integrated Across Sections)

  • The importance of supportive parenting and secure attachment for healthy socio-emotional development.
  • Recognition of plasticity suggests interventions (early childhood programs, parental education) can positively influence life outcomes.
  • Understanding ecological context emphasizes the need for culturally sensitive policies and programs (e.g., Indian ecological model) that address multiple environmental layers.
  • Identity formation during adolescence has long-term effects on well-being, career success, and relationships; counseling and mentorship can facilitate healthier transitions.
  • Cognitive development research informs education: tailoring learning to developmental stages (e.g., fostering concrete operational thinking in middle childhood, encouraging abstract reasoning in adolescence).
  • Awareness of aging trajectories highlights the need for health care access, social support systems, and opportunities for meaningful engagement to reduce loneliness and improve quality of life in older adults.

Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance

  • Life-span perspective aligns with holistic education and health approaches that address biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional domains together.
  • Bronfenbrenner’s model underlines why interventions must consider family, school, community, culture, and historical timing.
  • The discussion of teratogens and prenatal factors informs public health messages about pregnancy care and environmental safety.
  • Moral and identity development theories (Kohlberg, Erikson, Elkind) provide frameworks for understanding adolescent risk-taking and guiding parental/faculty responses.
  • The stages framework supports age-appropriate learning targets, assessment, and support in educational and clinical settings.

Key Formulas, Numbers, and Notable References (LaTeX)

  • Prenatal duration: 40\ \text{weeks}.
  • Infant milestones (examples): sitting and standing milestones expressed in weeks/months, e.g., 7\ \text{months} for sitting without support, 8\ \text{months} for standing with support, 12\ \text{months} for walking.
  • Time estimates in evolution: 14\ \text{million years} for human emergence from great apes.
  • Vision milestones: adult-level by approximately 12\text{ months} (20/20).
  • Piaget stages references: formal operational thinking around 11\text{-}15\ \text{years}; concrete operational development roughly 7\text{ to }11\ \text{years}; egocentrism and animism prominent in preoperational stage.

Summary of Stage-by-Stage Roadmap (Snapshot)

  • Prenatal: genetic + environmental factors; teratogens risk.
  • Infancy: rapid brain development; reflexes; sensory/motor foundations; attachment theory emphasis.
  • Childhood: cephalocaudal and proximodistal growth; development of concrete operational thinking; emergence of self and moral reasoning; language expansion.
  • Adolescence: puberty-driven physical changes; development of formal operational thought; identity formation; key concerns: delinquency, substance use, eating disorders.
  • Adulthood: career, marriage/family, bodily changes, cognitive aging variability.
  • Old Age: retirement, health, social connectedness, end-of-life considerations.