Total Review

Page 1: Cell Structure

• Organelles: Specialized structures within a cell, each with a specific function.

  • Nucleus: Control center of the cell; stores DNA.

  • Cell Membrane: Semi-permeable barrier, regulating what enters and exits the cell.

  • Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis and folding.

  • Cytoplasm: The clear liquid that suspends organelles.

• Types of Cells:

  • Prokaryotic Cells: Simple cells (e.g., bacteria) without a true nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

    • Structure: Single circular DNA chromosome in the nucleoid region, few compartments, processes occur in the cytoplasm.

    • Mobility: Often possess flagella for movement.

  • Eukaryotic Cells: More complex cells found in plants, animals, and fungi.

    • Features: Presence of a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

    • Compartmentalization: Allows specialized environments for different cellular processes.

Page 2: Reproduction

• Sexual Reproduction:

  • Involves two parents and the fusion of gametes (egg and sperm), resulting in genetically unique offspring.

  • Genetic diversity increases survival chances through varied traits.

• Asexual Reproduction:

  • Involves only one parent; offspring are genetically identical (clones).

  • Advantages: Rapid reproduction and independence from mating.

  • Disadvantages: Lack of genetic diversity can lead to vulnerability in changing environments.

Page 3: Types of Asexual Reproduction

• Methods Include:

  1. Spores: Microscopic seeds that develop into new organisms.

  2. Binary Fission: Cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells (typical in bacteria).

  3. Fragmentation: A piece of the organism can regrow into a new organism.

  4. Budding: New organism develops while attached to the parent and later detaches.

  5. Vegetative Reproduction: Plants extend shoots that develop into new plants.

• Cellular Respiration: Takes place in mitochondria, producing energy (ATP) from glucose and oxygen.

  • Equation: Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + ATP.

Page 4: Processes of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis: Breakdown of glucose to produce pyruvate, NADH, and a net gain of 2 ATP.

2. Preparatory Reaction: Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A without ATP production.

3. Citric Acid Cycle (Kreb's Cycle): Production of NADH and FADH2 alongside 2 ATP from a glucose molecule.

4. Electron Transport Chain (ETC): Major ATP production occurs here (up to 34 ATP); oxygen is the final electron acceptor, producing water.

Page 5: Energy and Photosynthesis

• Functions of ATP: Powers various body functions including digestion and movement.

• Photosynthesis: Process in plants converting solar energy into chemical energy in sugars.

  • Equation: Solar Energy + Carbon Dioxide + Water → Glucose + Oxygen.

  • Steps:

    1. Light Reactions: Convert light to chemical energy (NADPH and ATP).

    2. Calvin Cycle: Uses ATP and NADPH to synthesize sugars.

Page 6: Viruses

• Definition: Non-cellular particles made up of genetic material (DNA or RNA) and proteins.

  • HIV and Polio: Examples of viruses that affect specific cell types.

• Characteristics:

  • Not classified as living due to lack of cellular structure and metabolic functions.

  • Replication occurs only within host cells.

Page 7: Virus Structure and Reproduction

• Virus Structure:

  • Genetic material core (DNA or RNA) and protective protein capsid.

  • Some possess a membranous envelope aiding in host entry.

• Replication Process:

  • Attachment: Virus binds to host cell receptors.

  • Penetration: Injects genetic material into the host.

  • Biosynthesis: Uses host machinery to replicate viral components.

  • Maturation: Assembly of new viruses.

  • Lysis: Release of new viruses from the host.

Page 8: Bacteriophage Replication

• Cycle Types:

  • Lytic Cycle: Virus quickly replicates and causes host cell lysis.

  • Lysogenic Cycle: Viral DNA integrates into host DNA and replicates with the host cell until a trigger causes it to enter the lytic phase.

Page 9: Immunity and Defense Mechanisms

• Lines of Defense:

  • Primary Defense: Physical barriers like skin and mucus.

  • Secondary Defense: Phagocytic cells engulf and destroy pathogens.

  • Tertiary Defense: Antibodies specifically target pathogens.

Page 10: Theory of Evolution

• Definition: Change in the genetic composition of populations over time leading to diverse species.

• Evidence Supporting Evolution:

  • Fossil Records: Show historical life forms and transitions.

  • Molecular Biology: Genetic sequences can indicate evolutionary relationships.

  • Biogeography: Distribution of species correlates with their evolutionary history.

Page 11: Mechanisms of Evolution

• Microevolution: Small changes within species.

• Macroevolution: Large-scale changes leading to new species formation.

• Natural Selection: Favorable traits become more common in a population.

Page 12: Speciation

• Allopatric Speciation: Geographic barriers lead to the separation of populations.

• Sympatric Speciation: Populations diverge while inhabiting the same area due to other factors, like behavioral differences.

Pages 13-17: Animal Classification and Characteristics

• Phylum Porifera (Sponges): Simplest animals, asymmetrical, filter-feeders.

• Phylum Cnidaria (e.g., Jellyfish, Corals): Radial symmetry, stinging cells (cnidocytes).

• Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms): Bilateral symmetry, hermaphroditic, have a sac body plan.

• Phylum Nematoda (Roundworms): Tube-within-a-tube body plan, various habitats.

• Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms): True coelom, segmented body, closed circulatory system.

Page 18: Plant Evolution and Classification

• Characteristics of Plants: Eukaryotic, multicellular, chlorophyll for photosynthesis, cell walls made of cellulose.

• Plant Life Cycle: Following alternation of generations between sporophyte and gametophyte.

Page 19-24: Vascular and Non-Vascular Plants

• Bryophytes (Mosses): Non-vascular, depend on osmosis and diffusion for water movement.

• Pteridophyta (Ferns): Vascular, require water for reproduction.

Subsequent Pages Cover Advanced Animal and Plant Systems and Phylogenetic Relationships.

--The notes continue to outline details from their teachings on organisms ranging from Echinoderms, Arthropods, and examples of Mammalia, focusing on functionality, reproduction, unique adaptations, and evolutionary relationships.--