history unit 5 test

Leopold II

King of Belgium from 1865 to 1909, Leopold II personally controlled the Congo Free State as a private colonial venture. His regime was marked by extreme brutality, forced labor, and mass atrocities, resulting in the deaths of millions of Congolese. International pressure eventually forced him to cede control of the Congo to the Belgian government. Leopold’s actions highlighted the moral failures of European imperialism and influenced anti-colonial movements later in the 20th century.

Boer War (1899–1902)

A conflict between the British Empire and two Boer (Afrikaner) republics: the South African Republic (Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. The war was driven by British imperial interests and competition over the region’s rich gold and diamond resources. It involved guerrilla warfare, British scorched-earth tactics, and the use of concentration camps. British victory led to the annexation of the Boer republics and laid the groundwork for apartheid in South Africa.

Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

A meeting among European powers to formalize rules for the colonization and division of Africa, aiming to avoid conflict among imperial nations. No African leaders were invited. It accelerated the “Scramble for Africa,” legitimized colonial claims, and divided ethnic and cultural groups arbitrarily, contributing to long-term instability on the continent.

“Sick Man of Europe”

A nickname for the Ottoman Empire in the 19th and early 20th centuries due to its declining military power, economic weakness, and internal corruption. European powers saw the empire as vulnerable, leading to territorial encroachments and schemes like the Sykes-Picot Agreement. The term reflects the broader power shifts and imperial ambitions in pre–World War I Europe.

Schlieffen Plan

Germany’s military strategy to avoid fighting a two-front war. The plan aimed to quickly defeat France by invading through Belgium, then redirect forces to fight Russia. However, Belgium’s resistance and British involvement disrupted the timeline, leading to a protracted conflict on the Western Front. Its failure marked the beginning of trench warfare and prolonged stalemate.

Western Front

The main theater of war during World War I, stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland. It was defined by extensive trench systems, massive casualties, and battles such as the Battle of the Somme and Verdun. The Western Front became a symbol of the senseless destruction and stagnation of modern warfare.

No-Man’s-Land

The deadly, desolate space between opposing trenches on the Western Front. It was riddled with barbed wire, land mines, and artillery craters. Soldiers who entered No-Man’s-Land were exposed to enemy fire and rarely survived. It came to symbolize the futility and horror of trench warfare.

Verdun (1916)

One of the longest and bloodiest battles in World War I, fought between France and Germany. The French motto “They shall not pass!” became famous during this battle. Over 700,000 casualties were recorded. The battle’s goal was attrition, with Germany hoping to bleed the French army dry, but it failed and hardened French resolve.

Eastern Front

A more mobile theater of war between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Battles like Tannenberg and the Brusilov Offensive occurred here. The Eastern Front contributed to the collapse of the Russian Empire and set the stage for revolution.

Battle of Gallipoli (1915–1916)

An Allied campaign aimed at capturing the Dardanelles to open a sea route to Russia and knock the Ottoman Empire out of the war. Poor planning and strong Turkish defense led to heavy casualties, especially among Australian and New Zealand forces (ANZACs). It was a major Ottoman victory and boosted Turkish nationalism, eventually contributing to the rise of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)

A peace treaty between the Bolsheviks and the Central Powers after the October Revolution, ending Russian involvement in WWI. Russia lost vast territories including Ukraine, Finland, and the Baltic states. Although later reversed by the Treaty of Versailles, it highlighted Lenin’s willingness to make major concessions to secure Communist control.

Sinking of the Lusitania (1915)

A British passenger liner sunk by a German U-boat, killing 1,198 people, including 128 Americans. The incident increased anti-German sentiment in the U.S. and was a turning point leading to American entry into WWI in 1917. It intensified debates about unrestricted submarine warfare.

Armenian Genocide (1915–1917)

The mass killing and forced deportation of approximately 1.5 million Armenians by the Ottoman Empire during World War I. The genocide was carried out through death marches, massacres, and starvation. It is widely recognized as the first genocide of the 20th century, although Turkey continues to deny it.

Arab Revolt (1916–1918)

A rebellion by Arab nationalists against Ottoman rule during WWI, encouraged by Britain (notably through T.E. Lawrence or "Lawrence of Arabia"). The revolt aimed to establish Arab independence, but British betrayal through the Sykes-Picot Agreement and Balfour Declaration led to disillusionment and future conflict in the Middle East.

Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)

A secret agreement between Britain and France (with Russian assent) to divide the Ottoman Empire’s territories in the Middle East after the war. It contradicted promises made to Arab leaders, fostering distrust and anger that persists in regional politics to this day.

Wilson’s Fourteen Points (1918)

U.S. President Woodrow Wilson’s blueprint for a just peace after World War I. Key ideas included self-determination, freedom of the seas, open diplomacy, and the creation of a League of Nations. While idealistic, most points were ignored at the Paris Peace Conference, except the League itself.

Revolution and Ideologies in Russia and Europe

The League of Nations

An international body created by the Treaty of Versailles to prevent future wars through collective security and diplomacy. It lacked enforcement power, especially after the U.S. refused to join. Its failure to act during aggressions by Japan, Italy, and Germany in the 1930s undermined its credibility.

Self-Determination

The principle that people should have the right to choose their own government. Promoted by Wilson, it was applied unevenly after WWI, favoring European ethnic groups while being denied to colonial populations in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

Mandate System

Territories from the collapsed Ottoman and German Empires were placed under the control of Britain and France, rather than gaining independence. This system formalized colonial control under the guise of preparing regions for self-rule and sowed the seeds of anti-colonial resistance.

Economic Nationalism

A policy of protecting and promoting national industries through tariffs, state control, and limited foreign involvement. It intensified after the Great Depression, as countries competed economically, leading to further instability and contributing to the rise of authoritarian regimes.

October Revolution (1917)

The Bolshevik-led overthrow of Russia’s Provisional Government. It established the first Communist state and removed Russia from World War I. It was followed by the Russian Civil War and led to widespread economic disruption and political repression.

The Russian Civil War (1917–1922)

A multi-faceted conflict between the Bolsheviks (Red Army) and anti-Communist forces (White Army). Foreign intervention, ethnic uprisings, and peasant resistance further complicated the war. The Bolsheviks emerged victorious, solidifying Communist control over Russia.

The New Economic Policy (NEP)

Introduced by Lenin in 1921, the NEP allowed limited capitalism and private ownership to revive the Soviet economy after the devastation of war and revolution. While successful in short-term recovery, it was later abandoned by Stalin in favor of central planning.

The Great Purge (1936–1938)

A brutal campaign by Stalin to eliminate opposition within the Communist Party, military, and broader society. Millions were arrested, executed, or sent to labor camps (gulags). The Purge decimated Soviet leadership and contributed to widespread fear and obedience.

Albert Einstein (1879–1955)

A German-born physicist whose theory of relativity reshaped modern physics. Fleeing Nazi Germany, he emigrated to the U.S. and later warned President Roosevelt about the potential of atomic weapons. His work reflected broader postwar shifts in scientific thinking and the questioning of absolute truths.

Five-Year Plan

A series of centralized economic goals introduced by Stalin to rapidly industrialize the Soviet Union. These plans emphasized heavy industry and collectivized agriculture, resulting in major infrastructure growth but also widespread famine (notably in Ukraine) and forced labor.

Chinese Political History and Civil War

Dr. Sun Yat-sen (Guomindang)

Founder of the Republic of China and leader of the Guomindang (Nationalist Party). He advocated for nationalism, democracy, and people’s welfare. Though he lacked military power, his ideas inspired future Nationalist and Communist movements.

Mao Zedong (Chinese Communist Party)

Leader of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and eventual founder of the People’s Republic of China in 1949. He promoted a peasant-based revolution and used guerrilla tactics to defeat the Nationalists. His rise was solidified during the Long March and later victories in the civil war.

Jiang Jieshi (Chiang Kai-shek)

Successor to Sun Yat-sen as leader of the Nationalists. He led the Northern Expedition and attempted to unify China but turned against the Communists in 1927, sparking the Chinese Civil War. After defeat, he fled to Taiwan, where he established a rival Chinese government.

Northern Expedition (1926–1928)

A military campaign by the Nationalists to end warlord rule and unify China. Initially successful, it led to tensions with the Communists, culminating in the violent purge that began the civil war.

Long March (1934–1935)

A strategic retreat by the CCP from southern China to escape Nationalist encirclement. It covered over 6,000 miles and became a symbol of Communist resilience. Mao Zedong emerged as the party’s unchallenged leader during the march.

Mukden Incident (1931)

A staged event by Japanese military forces, who blew up a railway and blamed Chinese troops to justify invading Manchuria. This act of aggression led to the establishment of the puppet state Manchukuo and exposed the weakness of the League of Nations, which failed to intervene effectively.