Unit 1 - Biological Bases of Behavior (AP Psychology):

Topic 1.1: Interaction of Heredity and Environment

1. Heredity (Nature)

Genetic traits influencing behavior and mental processes.

2. Environment (Nurture)

External factors, like family and education, impacting development.

3. Evolutionary Perspective

Examines how natural selection shapes behavior to enhance survival.

4. Twin, Family, and Adoption Studies

Research methods for studying genetic vs. environmental influences.

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### Topic 1.2: Overview of the Nervous System

5. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Composed of the brain and spinal cord; controls bodily functions.

6. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects CNS to the body; includes autonomic and somatic systems.

7. Autonomic Nervous System

Controls involuntary body functions (heart rate, digestion).

8. Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body, conserving energy after stress.

9. Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates fight-or-flight response during stress.

10. Somatic Nervous System

Manages voluntary muscle movements.

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### Topic 1.3: The Neuron and Neural Firing

11. Neuron

Cell transmitting information through the nervous system.

12. Glial Cells

Supportive cells providing structure and insulation to neurons.

13. Reflex Arc

Pathway for quick responses in the spinal cord, involving sensory, motor, and interneurons.

14. All-or-Nothing Principle

Neurons either fully fire or not at all.

15. Depolarization

Process where a neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative.

16. Refractory Period

Recovery time after a neuron fires, during which it can’t fire again.

17. Resting Potential

State of a neuron when not firing an impulse.

18. Reuptake

Reabsorption of neurotransmitters back into the neuron.

19. Threshold

Minimum stimulus required to trigger a neural impulse.

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### Neurotransmitters (Related to Behavior)

20. Dopamine

Influences movement, motivation, and pleasure.

21. Serotonin

Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.

22. Norepinephrine

Involved in alertness and arousal.

23. Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter; important for learning.

24. GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter; calms neural activity.

25. Endorphins

Natural pain relievers and mood enhancers.

26. Substance P

Transmits pain signals.

27. Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle action and memory.

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### Hormones (Related to Behavior)

28. Adrenaline

Prepares body for action (fight-or-flight response).

29. Leptin

Signals satiety and regulates hunger.

30. Ghrelin

Stimulates hunger.

31. Melatonin

Regulates sleep-wake cycles.

32. Oxytocin

Promotes bonding and social interactions.

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### Psychoactive Drugs and Their Effects

33. Agonists

Drugs that increase neurotransmitter activity.

34. Antagonists

Drugs that decrease neurotransmitter activity.

35. Reuptake Inhibitors

Prevent reabsorption of neurotransmitters, prolonging effects.

36. Stimulants

Increase neural activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine).

37. Depressants

Decrease neural activity (e.g., alcohol).

38. Hallucinogens

Cause altered perceptions (e.g., marijuana).

39. Opioids

Pain relievers (e.g., heroin).

40. Tolerance

Need for higher doses to achieve the same effect.

41. Addiction

Compulsive use of substances despite harmful consequences.

42. Withdrawal

Symptoms experienced when stopping a drug.

Biological Bases of Behavior: The Brain

- Brain Stem: Controls basic functions such as breathing and heart rate.

- Medulla: Part of the brain stem responsible for autonomic functions like breathing and heart rate.

- Reticular Activating System: Controls voluntary movement, eye movement, learning, cognition, and emotion.

- Reward Center: Involved in voluntary movement, learning, and emotion.

- Cerebellum: Coordinates muscle movement, balance, and procedural learning.

- Cerebral Cortex: Divided into two hemispheres, includes the limbic system, corpus callosum, and lobes of the cortex.

- Limbic System: Composed of the thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, and amygdala.

- Occipital Lobes: Located at the back of the brain; processes visual information.

- Temporal Lobes: Located on the sides of the brain; processes auditory and linguistic information.

- Parietal Lobes: Located near the crown of the brain; processes touch sensitivity and association areas.

- Somatosensory Cortex: Part of the parietal lobes; processes touch sensitivity.

- Frontal Lobes: Located just behind the forehead; controls linguistic processing, higher-order thinking, and executive functions.

- Motor Cortex: Located at the rear of the frontal lobes; controls skeletal movement.

- Split-Brain Research: Study of the brain’s hemispheres and functions by severing the corpus callosum.

- Corpus Callosum: Connects the brain's two hemispheres and facilitates interhemispheric communication.

- Broca's Area: Responsible for speech production, located in the left hemisphere.

- Wernicke's Area: Responsible for speech comprehension, located in the left hemisphere.

- Aphasia: Language impairment due to damage to Broca’s or Wernicke’s area.

- Brain Plasticity: Brain’s ability to rewire itself or form new connections, particularly after damage.

- Brain Scans: Techniques like EEG and MRI used to study brain structure and function.

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Biological Bases of Behavior: Sleep

- Circadian Rhythm: The 24-hour biological cycle of sleep and wakefulness.

- Stages of Sleep: NREM sleep (Stages 1–3) and REM sleep, with specific EEG patterns.

- REM Sleep: Known for vivid dreaming; paradoxical sleep due to active brain and relaxed body.

- NREM Sleep: Includes Stages 1–3; decreases in duration through sleep cycles.

- REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep following sleep deprivation.

- Memory Consolidation Theory: Suggests sleep helps organize and solidify memories.

- Sleep Disorders: Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, REM sleep behavior disorder, sleep apnea, and somnambulism.

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Biological Bases of Behavior: Sensation

- Sensation: Process of detecting stimuli and converting it into neurochemical messages for perception.

- Absolute Threshold: Minimum intensity at which a stimulus is detected at least 50% of the time.

- Just-Noticeable Difference: The minimal change in stimulus required for detection.

- Sensory Adaptation: Decreased sensitivity to continuous stimuli over time.

- Weber’s Law: States that the change in a stimulus is detectable if it meets a certain ratio to the original stimulus.

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Biological Bases of Behavior: Vision

- Retina: Photosensitive surface in the eye that captures visual information for processing.

- Blind Spot: Area on the retina with no photoreceptors where the optic nerve exits the eye.

- Accommodation: Lens adjustment to focus light on the retina for clear vision.

- Rods: Cells in the retina sensitive to light, aiding in low-light vision.

- Cones: Cells in the retina responsible for color and detail detection.

- Trichromatic Theory: Theory of color vision based on three types of cones: blue, green, and red.

- Opponent-Process Theory: Theory of color vision involving opposing pairs like red/green and blue/yellow.

- Prosopagnosia: Disorder causing an inability to recognize faces.

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Biological Bases of Behavior: Hearing

- Pitch: Frequency of sound waves; interpreted as high or low tones.

- Loudness: Amplitude of sound waves; interpreted as volume.

- Place Theory: Explains pitch perception by where sound waves stimulate the basilar membrane.

- Volley Theory: Explains pitch perception by the frequency of neuron firing.

- Sound Localization: Ability to determine the origin of a sound in the environment.

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Biological Bases of Behavior: Chemical Senses

- Olfaction (Smell): Sense of smell processed in the brain’s olfactory system, bypassing the thalamus.

- Pheromones: Chemical signals affecting behavior and physiology in members of the same species.

- Gustation (Taste): Sense of taste, including sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus.

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Biological Bases of Behavior: Touch and Pain

- Touch Sensation: Detected by receptors in the skin for sensations like pressure and temperature.

- Gate Control Theory: Theory that pain signals are regulated by "gates" in the spinal cord.

- Phantom Limb Sensation: Feeling of sensation in a limb that has been amputated.

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Biological Bases of Behavior: Balance and Kinesthesia

- Vestibular Sense: Controls balance, primarily detected by the semicircular canals.

- Kinesthesia: Sense of body movement and position, enabling coordinated movement.

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