MG

BIOL 211 Chapter 1: Orientation Notes

Announcements

  • Lecture slides and other information will be posted on Google Classroom rather than on the campus network (//alcdata/CLASSES/) or on CANVAS.
  • It is very HIGHLY RECOMMENDED that you procure a copy of the textbook. (Older editions are acceptable)
  • We will also be using the Pearson MasteringAandP.com website for homework assignments.

Course Access and Homework Setup

  • Homework Assignment #1 – due Friday 29 August 2025
    • Using the instructions provided in your syllabus, enroll in the Google Class for this course.
    • This will provide you with access to lecture slides, while on or off campus.
  • Homework Assignment #2 – due Friday 29 August 2025
    • Using the instructions provided in the syllabus, register on the MasteringAandP.com website.
    • Register for Temporary 14-day access.
    • Enroll in Course ID = pryor54157.
    • Complete the tutorial assignment(s).
    • BEFORE your 14-day trial period ends, go to the Office of the Provost; AJ Hall will pay for full access for you using a college credit card.
  • More assignments will be added throughout the semester.

Basic Terminology: Anatomy vs Physiology

  • Anatomy = the study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another.
  • Physiology = the study of the function of body parts, and how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities.
  • In the textbook (for simplicity), the structures and physiological reference values correspond to either a:
    • Reference male: healthy, young adult male, Age 20-25 years, Weight ~155 pounds (lb) = 70 kilograms (kg)
    • Reference female: healthy, young adult female, Age 20-25 years, Weight ~125 lb = 57 kg
  • Numerical reference values:
    • 155\ \text{lb} \approx 70\ \text{kg}
    • 125\ \text{lb} \approx 57\ \text{kg}

Sex vs Gender

  • Sex refers to a set of biological attributes based upon chromosomes, gene expression, and hormone action; reflected in one’s reproductive anatomy and physiology, especially the external genitalia.
    • Male or female.
  • Gender is a psychosocial construct consisting of behaviors, expressions, and identities, how an individual presents themselves to society.
    • Examples: man, woman, transgender, non-binary, etc.

Subdivisions of Anatomy

  • Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: study of large structures visible to the naked eye.
    • Regional anatomy: looks at all structures in a particular area (e.g., head, chest, abdomen).
    • System anatomy: focuses on one organ system (e.g., cardiovascular, nervous, muscular, urinary).
    • Surface anatomy: looks at internal structures as they relate to overlying skin (e.g., visible muscle masses or bony protrusions).
  • Microscopic anatomy: deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye.
    • Cytology: microscopic study of cells.
    • Histology: microscopic study of tissues.
  • Developmental anatomy: studies changes in anatomy and physiology that occur throughout life.
    • Embryology: development before birth.
  • Gerontology: study of changes that occur as a person ages.
  • Techniques used for studying anatomy:
    • Mastery of anatomical terminology.
    • Observation: visual examination of structures.
    • Palpation: examination of underlying structures through the skin by touch.
    • Manipulation: examination by using hands to move structures.
    • Auscultation: examination by listening, typically with a stethoscope or other instrument.

Physiology

  • Physiology = study of the function of the body.
  • Subdivisions of physiology are typically based on organ systems (e.g., renal, respiratory, cardiovascular physiology).
  • Modern studies often focus on the cellular and molecular level because functions at tissues and organs depend on chemical reactions within individual cells.
  • Studying physiology requires:
    • Ability to focus at many levels of organization (systemic to molecular).
    • Study of basic principles of physics (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, movement).
    • Study of basic principles of chemistry.

Principle of Complementarity

  • Anatomy and physiology are inseparable.
  • Function always reflects structure; structure reflects function.
  • Which function a structure can perform depends on its specific form (shape and physical properties).

Necessary Life Functions

  • Maintenance of life involves:
    • Maintaining boundaries
    • Movement
    • Responsiveness
    • Digestion
    • Metabolism
    • Excretion
    • Reproduction
    • Growth

Maintaining Boundaries (Necessary Life Function)

  • Separation between internal and external environments must exist.
    • Plasma membranes of cells separate cytoplasm from extracellular fluids.
    • Skin separates internal parts of the organism from the environment.

Movement

  • The muscular system allows movement:
    • Of body parts via skeletal muscles.
    • Of substances through tubular organs via cardiac muscle (blood) or smooth muscle (digestion, urination).

Responsiveness

  • Ability to sense and respond to stimuli.
    • Examples:
    • Withdrawal reflex to prevent injury.
    • Control of breathing rate, which must change in response to different activities.

Digestion

  • Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs, followed by absorption of simple molecules into the blood.

Metabolism

  • Sum of all chemical reactions that occur in body cells.
    • Catabolism: breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones.
    • Anabolism: synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.

Excretion

  • Removal of waste products of metabolism and digestion from the body.
    • Urea (from breakdown of proteins).
    • Carbon dioxide (from metabolism).
    • Feces (undigested and unabsorbed foods from the digestive tract).

Reproduction

  • Cellular level: reproduction involves division of cells (mitosis) for growth, replacement, or repair.
  • Organismal and population level: reproduction is the production of new individuals (offspring).

Growth

  • Irreversible increase in size and changes in shape of a body part or of the organism.

Anatomical Terminology: Standard Anatomical Position and Other Body Positions

  • Standard Anatomical Position:
    • Body erect (standing up), feet flat on floor.
    • Feet placed slightly apart—not further than shoulder distance.
    • Palms facing forward.
    • Thumbs pointed away from midline.
  • Other Body Positions:
    • Sitting (upright).
    • Recumbent (reclined) – “lounge chair” position.
    • Prone (prostrate) – lying face down.
    • Supine – lying on back (face up).

Orientation and Directional Terms (Table 1.1)

  • Superior (cranial): toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above.
    • Example: An upward arrow alongside a figure shows the head is superior to the abdomen.
  • Inferior (caudal): away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below.
    • Example: The navel is inferior to the chin.
  • Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the body; in front of.
    • Example: The sternum is anterior to the spine.
  • Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the back of the body; behind.
    • Example: The heart is posterior to the sternum.
  • BE AWARE:
    • Ventral = toward the belly; Dorsal = toward the back.
    • Anterior can = cranial or ventral, depending on your subject/model.
    • Posterior can = caudal or dorsal, depending on your subject/model.

Table 1.1 Continued: More Terms

  • Proximal: closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.
    • Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
  • Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.
    • Example: The knee is distal to the thigh.
  • Superficial (external): toward or at the body surface.
    • Example: The skin is superficial to the bones.
  • Deep (internal): away from the body surface; more internal.
    • Example: The lungs are deep to the skin.
  • Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of.
    • Example: The heart is medial to the arm.
  • Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the outer side.
    • Example: The arms are lateral to the chest.
  • Intermediate: between a more medial and a more lateral structure.
    • Example: The collarbone is intermediate between the sternum and shoulder.

Ipsilateral and Contralateral

  • Ipsilateral = on the same side of the body.
    • Example: Right hand and right foot.
  • Contralateral = on opposite sides of the body.
    • Example: Right hand and left foot.