Gender and Human Sexuality Review

Chapter Eleven: Gender and Human Sexuality

Modern Research

• Kinsey's Research (1948, 1953)

  • Interviewed over 18,000 participants using detailed questions.
  • Results were surprising to society.
  • Recognized for excellent interview techniques.
  • Criticized for violating various ethical standards.

• Masters and Johnson (1961, 1966, 1970)

  • Conducted lab studies and observations.
  • Utilized physiological measurements in their research.

Sexuality Across Cultures

Mangaia (Polynesian Island)

• Childhood Sexuality:
  • Children are readily exposed to sexuality.
  • Adolescents receive direct instruction on pleasuring partners.
  • Both boys and girls are encouraged to have many sexual partners.

Yolngu (Island near Australia)

• Childhood Sexuality:
  • Permissive towards childhood sexuality.
  • Parents soothe infants by stroking their genitals.
  • Nudity is accepted from infancy through old age.

Inis Beag (Irish Island)

• Childhood Sexuality:
  • Sexual expression is strongly discouraged.
  • Children learn to dislike nudity without receiving information about sex.
  • Girls often feel shocked by their first menstruation.
  • Adult Sexuality:
  • After marriage, men experience three orgasms per night on average.
  • Men are encouraged to provide three orgasms to female partners for every one they have.
  • Adults engage in a wide range of sexual behaviors.
  • Men can have multiple wives and are generally content with their sex lives.
  • Women have no choice in marital partners and possess little power in the home.
  • Women's sexual engagement is often apathetic, with infrequent orgasms and general unhappiness.
  • Little sexual play occurs before intercourse; female orgasm is either unknown or seen as deviant.
  • Misconceptions about sex exist, such as the belief that intercourse can be debilitating and menopause causes insanity.

Describing Sex and Gender

• Sex:

  • Refers to biological maleness and femaleness, including chromosomal sex and sexual behaviors like masturbation and intercourse.

• Gender:

  • Encompasses psychological and sociocultural traits typically associated with one's sex.
  • Distinction Between Sex and Gender:
  • The terms are often used interchangeably but refer to different concepts; they are related yet not identical.

Gender Identity

• Our self-identification as either male or female.

Gender Roles

• Sets of socially-determined expectations regarding the thoughts, feelings, and actions of men and women.
• Gender Stereotypes:
  • Overgeneralized beliefs about the traits and roles of genders.

Androgyny

• Refers to the exhibition of both masculine and feminine traits.
• Correlation with higher self-esteem, creativity, academic performance, mental health, social competence, and achievement motivation.
• Men and women often value masculine traits over feminine ones.

Dimensions of Sex and Gender

• Sex Dimensions:

  1. Chromosomes: Male: XY; Female: XX.
  2. Gonads: Male: Testes; Female: Ovaries.
  3. Hormones: Male: Primarily androgens; Female: Primarily estrogens.
  4. External Genitals: Male: Penis; Female: Labia minor and clitoris.
  5. Internal Accessory Organs: Male: Prostate gland, seminal vesicles, vas deferens; Female: Vagina, uterus, fallopian tubes.
  6. Secondary Sex Characteristics: Male: Beard, lower voice; Female: Breasts and wider hips.
  7. Sexual Orientation: Male: Heterosexual, gay, bisexual; Female: Heterosexual, lesbian, bisexual.

• Gender Dimensions:

  8. Gender Identity: Self-definition as male or female.
  9. Gender Role (Societal Expectations): Masculine traits associated with boys and feminine traits with girls.

Understanding Sex and Gender

• Transgender:
  • Individuals whose gender identity does not match their biological sex.
• Cross Dressing:
  • The practice of wearing clothing and adopting behaviors associated with the opposite sex; also known as transvestism, distinct from being transgender.

Sex and Gender Differences

Body Size and Shape

• Average man is 35 pounds heavier, has less body fat, and is 5 inches taller than the average woman.
• Men generally have broader shoulders, slimmer hips, and slightly longer legs in proportion to their height.

Brain Differences

• The corpus callosum, which connects the two halves of the brain, is larger in women.
  • This may facilitate better integration of information and multitasking abilities in women.
• Hypothalamic differences lead to men having a relatively constant level of sex hormones, while women experience cyclic production and menstruation.
• Variance in cerebral hemispheres contributes to differences in verbal and spatial skills.

Muscular System

• Until puberty, boys and girls have comparable physical strength, post which men typically have more muscle mass and greater strength.

Skeletal System

• Men continuously produce testosterone; women’s estrogen production ceases after menopause, leading to brittle bones and greater knee injury risks due to wider hips.

Research-Supported Sex and Gender Differences

Sexual Behaviors

• More Often Shown by Men:

  • Begin masturbating earlier with higher occurrence.
  • Initiate sexual life sooner with orgasm primarily through masturbation.
  • More attuned to recognizing their own arousal and report higher orgasm consistency.
  • Physical touch from parents tends to be less, leading to less physical contact with other men and negative responses to being touched.

• More Often Shown by Women:

  • Start masturbating later, with lower overall occurrence rates, initiating sexual life later.
  • Recognize own sexual arousal less frequently and have reduced orgasm consistency.
  • More physical affection experienced from parents, with better physical contact among women.

Personality Traits

• Men usually have more friends and express friendship through shared activities, and show earlier aggression.
• Women tend to have smaller social circles, focus on communication within friendships, and are less aggressive.

Cognitive Abilities

• Boys are slightly superior in math and visuospatial skills; girls demonstrate superiority in verbal skills.

Gender-Role Development

Social-Learning Theory

• Gender-typed behavior develops through rewards, punishments, observation, and imitation of role models.

Gender-Schema Theory

• Combines social learning with cognitive development to actively process gender role information, leading to the formation of gender schemas (mental images).

Sexual Response Cycle (Masters and Johnson, 1966)

• Phases of Sexual Response:
  1. Excitement: Arousal initiated through touch or fantasy; physical changes include increased heart rate and genital erection/lubrication.
  2. Plateau: Physiological and sexual arousal increase; both sexes feel imminent orgasm.
  3. Orgasm: Intense pleasure and release of tension; specific muscular contractions occur in both genders leading to climax. Men ejaculate seminal fluid.
  4. Resolution: Physiological responses return to baseline; men typically enter a refractory period while women may achieve multiple orgasms.

Sexual Orientation

• Exact causes of sexual orientation remain unclear; research indicates it's not taught or learned.
• Genetics and biology likely play key roles.
• Sexual Prejudice: Refers to negative attitudes towards individuals based on their sexual orientation; the outdated term "homophobia" suggests a fear rather than prejudice.

Paraphilic Disorders

• Defined as psychosexual disorders involving distress regarding one’s sexual interests, which can manifest as disturbing fantasies, urges, or behaviors. Examples include:
  • Fetishistic disorder
  • Exhibitionistic disorder

Sexual Dysfunction

• Defined as significant disturbances in a person’s ability to respond sexually or experience pleasure.

Major Male Sexual Dysfunctions

• Erectile Disorder (Impotence):

  • Marked difficulty in obtaining or maintaining an erection; must occur in about 75-100% of sexual activity.
  • Physical (chronic illnesses, diabetes) or psychological causes (performance anxiety, antisexual education).

• Premature Ejaculation:

  • Ejaculation occurring almost immediately during sexual activity; can be generalized or situational.
  • Causes: Chronic illnesses, psychological factors.

Major Female Sexual Dysfunctions

• Female Orgasmic Disorder:

  • Marked delay or absence of orgasm, or significantly reduced intensity. Can be generalized or situational.
  • Causes include chronic illnesses, psychological factors, and learned associations.

• Vaginismus:

  • Involuntary spasms preventing penile insertion; associated with both physical and psychological factors.

Disorders Affecting Both Genders

• Inhibited Sexual Desire (Sexual Apathy): Avoidance due to disinterest.
• Sexual Aversion: Avoidance due to overwhelming fear or anxiety.
• Dyspareunia: Painful intercourse caused by physical or psychological factors.

Psychological Influences

• Performance Anxiety: Fear of being judged during sexual activities.
• Sexual Scripts: Socially dictated descriptions of appropriate behaviors during sexual interactions.
• Double Standard: Norms that encourage male sexuality while discouraging female sexuality.

Sexual Effects of Drugs

Masters and Johnson's Sex Therapy Program

• Four Major Principles:
  • Focus on relationships.
  • Investigation of both biological and psychosocial factors.
  • Emphasis on cognitive factors and specific behavioral techniques.

Sex Therapist Recommendations

• Start sex education early.
• Avoid performance-oriented approaches.
• Promote open communication with partners.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

• Percentage of Infection after Unprotected Intercourse:
  • Chlamydia: 10%.
  • Gonorrhea: 20%.
  • Genital Herpes: 30%.
  • Hepatitis: 40%.
  • Syphilis: 50%.

Symptoms of STIs

• Male Symptoms:

  • Unusual discharge from the penis, penile soreness.
  • Possible conditions include chlamydia, gonorrhea, and nongonococcal urethritis.

• Female Symptoms:

  • Unusual vaginal discharge, out-of-cycle abdominal pain, abnormal vaginal bleeding.
  • Possible conditions include chlamydia, gonorrhea, monilia, and trichomoniasis.

• Joint Symptoms for Both Genders:

  • Painful intercourse or urination, feverish feeling, soreness, rash, and intense itching.

AIDS and HIV

• Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS):
  • Caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which destroys the immune system.
  • Mode of transmission includes direct contact with bodily fluids.

Safer Sex Suggestions

1. Stay abstinent or have sexual relations with one faithful, uninfected partner.
2. Avoid sharing needles or syringes; do not engage in sex if impaired.
3. Use condoms consistently and correctly.
4. Educate yourself on sexual health and safety.

Sexual Victimization

• Child Sexual Abuse:

  • Defined as a sexual act with a child intended to give sexual gratification to an adult.
  • Prevention includes education, reducing risk, and empowering children.

• Rape:

  • An unlawful act of coercing penetration without consent.
  • Affects nearly 1 million women each year in the U.S., leading to severe long-term consequences.

Preventing Rape

• Enhance education on sexuality and safe relationships.
• Help parents recognize violent attitudes in children.
• Implement policies addressing sexual violence in schools and workplaces.
• Increase awareness among bystanders regarding sexual violence.

Sexual Communication

Communication Differences Between Genders

In General, Men Tend to:

• Use speech to convey information and exert control.
• Talk more, interrupt women more, especially in same-gender dynamics.
• Be assertive and direct during conflicts.
• Prefer spoken communication and solve problems independently.

In General, Women Tend to:

• Use speech to foster intimacy and relationships.
• Talk more when they possess more power.
• Be indirect and tentative, focusing on feelings in conversations.
• Discuss solutions collaboratively and show sensitivity during conflicts.

Sources

• References included in the transcript, covering various studies and perspectives on gender and sexuality, are acknowledged throughout this document for proper attribution.

— All content copyrighted by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. © 2018