POSC 240 Final Exam

Key terms, patterns, and trends

  • Development: A multidimensional process involving economic growth, reduction of poverty and inequality, and improvements in health, education, and well-being.

  • Measures of poverty:

    • Gross Domestic Product (GDP): Total value of goods and services produced in a country.

    • Gross National Income (GNI): GDP plus net income earned from abroad.

    • Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): An economic theory that compares different countries' currencies through a "basket of goods" approach to determine relative value.

  • Patterns in the distribution of the world’s income:

    • High income concentrated in Global North; extreme income inequality persists between and within countries.

    • Global Gini coefficient remains high, reflecting inequality.

  • Human Development Index (HDI):

    • Composite measure of life expectancy, education, and per capita income.

    • Provides a more comprehensive measure than GDP alone.

    • Northern and Western Europe, North America, and parts of East Asia score high; Sub-Saharan Africa scores low.

  • Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs):

    • 17 goals established by the UN in 2015 aimed at ending poverty, improving health and education, reducing inequality, and tackling climate change by 2030.

  • Goals of global development policies:

    • Promote inclusive and sustainable economic growth.

    • Eradicate poverty and hunger.

    • Improve education, health, gender equality, and environmental sustainability.

  • Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):

    • 8 international goals from 2000–2015 focused on poverty reduction, education, gender equality, and health.

    • Achievements include halving extreme poverty and increasing primary school enrollment.

  • SDGs—intentions, achievements, and influencing factors:

    • Intended to build on MDGs with broader and more inclusive goals.

    • Progress uneven—conflicts, economic crises, and COVID-19 have hindered development.

    • Countries vary widely in SDG performance due to governance, resource availability, and institutional capacity.

Poverty

  • Definition: Lack of access to basic needs like food, clean water, health care, education, and shelter.

  • International Poverty Line: $2.15/day (World Bank, 2022 update).

  • Extreme Poverty: Severe deprivation of basic human needs.

  • Global trends:

    • Overall global poverty has declined, but remains high in Sub-Saharan Africa.

    • COVID-19 and climate change have caused setbacks.

  • Causes of poverty:

    • Conflict, poor governance, lack of education, corruption, historical exploitation, and structural inequality.

  • Cycle of poverty: Self-reinforcing mechanisms that trap individuals and communities in poverty across generations.

  • Sub-Saharan Africa indicators:

    • High child mortality, undernourishment, limited healthcare access, low literacy.

  • Health, hunger, and food security:

    • Malnutrition remains widespread.

    • Food insecurity worsened by war, climate change, and economic disruption.

  • Examples from videos:

    • Likely included case studies on Sub-Saharan Africa, India, or Latin America demonstrating poverty reduction programs or failures.

Development Assistance

  • Motivations:

    • Humanitarian, political (diplomatic influence), economic (market development), and strategic (counter-terrorism).

  • Trends:

    • Rising aid to least developed countries, focus on health and education.

    • Shift toward bilateral over multilateral aid in some countries.

  • Official Development Assistance (ODA):

    • Government aid to promote development and welfare in developing countries.

    • Can provide health care, education, infrastructure, governance training.

    • Forms: grants, loans, technical assistance.

    • Major donors: U.S., Germany, UK, France, Japan.

    • U.S. public opinion often overestimates foreign aid spending.

  • DAC Countries (Development Assistance Committee):

    • OECD group of 30+ wealthy nations that coordinate ODA.

    • Patterns: Europe provides more aid as % of GNI than the U.S.

    • DAC sets guidelines and monitors aid effectiveness.

MODULE SIX: Ethnic Conflict

Key terms, patterns, and trends

  • Ethnic diversity: Variety of ethnic groups in a society.

  • Cultural diversity/pluralism: Coexistence of multiple cultures in one area.

  • Politics of difference: Political mobilization based on ethnic/cultural identity.

  • Ethnic differences: Can be politicized to exacerbate conflict.

  • Inter-ethnic relations:

    • Integration, assimilation, separation, marginalization, domination.

  • Causes of ethnic violence:

    • Historical grievances, colonial legacies, political exclusion, economic disparities, weak institutions.

    • Trigger events often escalate latent tensions.

  • Ethnic clashes in developed countries:

    • Often sparked by immigration, inequality, and political rhetoric.

    • Example: tensions in France or U.S. racial unrest.

  • Ethnic violence in developing countries:

    • Examples: Sudan (Darfur genocide), Myanmar (Rohingya crisis).

Myanmar Case Study

  • Ethnic diversity: Over 135 ethnic groups; major divides include Bamar vs. minorities (Rohingya, Shan, Karen, etc.).

  • Historical governance: Long-standing military rule, intermittent democratic reform.

  • Diversity and democracy:

    • Democratic opening in 2010s led to greater expression of ethnic grievances.

    • Ethnic minorities still underrepresented.

  • Armed conflict:

    • Ethnic armed organizations fighting for autonomy.

    • Ceasefires often break down.

  • Current government:

    • Military junta reasserted control in 2021 coup.

    • Repression of dissent and media.

  • Ethnic cleansing of Rohingya:

    • 2017 military-led genocide; over 700,000 fled to Bangladesh.

    • International condemnation; ongoing refugee crisis.

  • Video:

    • Likely includes documentary or news segments on Rohingya situation.

CUMULATIVE THEMES (Essay Prep)

  1. States vs. Nations:

    • State: Political-legal organization with sovereignty.

    • Nation: Shared identity based on culture, language, or ethnicity.

    • Nation-state: Where state boundaries coincide with a national identity (e.g., Japan).

    • Status: Globalization and migration challenge nation-state model.

  2. Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems:

    • Parliamentary: Executive from legislature; more responsive, less gridlock.

    • Presidential: Separation of powers; more stable terms, but potential for conflict.

    • Democratic vs. Authoritarian: Some authoritarian regimes mimic presidential structures with weak checks.

  3. Unitary vs. Federal Models:

    • Unitary: Centralized power (e.g., UK, France).

    • Federal: Shared power (e.g., U.S., Germany).

    • Trade-offs: Unitary more efficient; federalism allows local autonomy but may entrench inequality.

  4. Electoral and Party Systems:

    • Proportional representation fosters multiparty systems and representation.

    • Plurality systems (e.g., FPTP) may simplify governance but underrepresent minorities.

    • Trade-offs: Proportional = more representation, less stability; Plurality = more stability, less choice.

INTER-ETHINC RELATIONS

  • there are wide variations in how different ethnicities relate to each other

    • Some amicable others not

    • Day to day acts of aggression all the way up to extremities like the Rwandan genocide 

  • four broad categories 

    • Relative harmony 

      • More common in affluent countries (Switzerland ethnic harmony) (in Canada and the US is relatively harmonious)

      • Less common in developing countries (many Caribbean countries —however in places like Brazil there in relative harmony overall)(classified relative to other countries)

      • Harmony is a relative term (easier relations however there is also a strict hierarchy where most blacks are lower in the hierarchy) 

    • Uneasy balace 

      • Different groups predominate in different areas of society (ex: Malaysia) (one group dominates the political, others the economic, and social)

  • enforced hierarchy (or ethnic dominance)

    • Power concentrated in the hands of a ruling ethnic group (latin American populations)

    • Usually racial and class distinctions are closely intertwined (those higher up in the hierarchy are usually in the majority and usually part of the lighter skin population)

  • Systematic violence 

    • In forced hierarchy creates a class system and its easy to see the have and have nots—- so when ethnic divisions overlaps with class difference violence tends to spark especially if it have been happening for generations 

    • Zero sum game - no possibility of peaceful interactions — when its legally enforced its very problematic 

NOTES 5/1/25 Causes of ethnic violence 

  • Ancient hatreds: who is more or less likely to experience ethnic conflict (feeling of old wronging) however many times the historical animosities are more complex than just that

    • economic and social development

    • Nothing to be done as it just is what it is and there will always be tension

  • contemporary ethnic conflicts have more immediate cause 

    • Level of economic development 

      • Tends to have a higher chance of this when natural resources are not as available 

  • deliberate manipulation of negative perceptions 

    • Use the history of bad interaction to guide the minds of the general population towards hatred to each other 

  • Globalization 

    • How it erases bounties and takes away ethnic boundaries and may threaten those leaders as those boundaries  melt away and people move

    • Erosion of culture - allows a leader to say that they are under threat and can promote the violence as defense  

    • Competition for scare economic resources

      • Economic disparities has helped drive the conflict 

  • weak poliitcal institutions 

    • Systematic and widespread frustrations of human needs

Ethnic conflict:

  • Ethnic clashes 

    • Although ethnic violence is clearly more prevalent in poor countries, developed countries are also experiencing ethnic tensions and renewed ethnic nationalism 

    • Anti-semitism, anti-muslim, anti-foreigner sentiments

      • Nationalist parties 

      • Increasing violence 

      • Terrorist attacks—intensity increases 

  • Ethnic Violence

    • A clear tendency today

      • Syria- upraising against asaid who was discriminatory that was demanding a transition to democracy 

      • Myanmar —-mix of a lot of people — colonial power created ethnic groups based on looks —-one majority ethnic group 

      • The Burmans have always had the majority — very visible 

      • Minority groups treatment has always been bad

      • An essentialist, exclusivist conception (us versus them mindset) of ethnicity 

      • National identity has proven difficult to solidify 

      • Democracy wasn’t very successful so very transitional 

      • 1948 independence 

      • Introduce a new plan towards globalization 

      • Introduces a big role in the military in politics and have civilian rule

        • Gives the military widespread rule under the civilians 

  • Military officially dissolves in 2011—-then hold elections and elects a civilian government 

Ethnic violence in Myanmar 

  • rather than mitigating ethnic difference and promoting a sense of national identity several aspects of the democratic political systems have cemented the centrality of ethnicity in Myanmar 

  • Political parties tied to ethnic identity not ideology or other political goals 

  • Small parties were cut out

    • Past the post - SMD

  • did not pull people together 

  • Numerical and geographic preferences (gerrymandering) 

    • States (if you had enough political influence)

    • Self administered areas (only if you had a good geographic area)

    • Parliamentary seats ( the gov had a certain number of seats assigned to ethnic groups)

    • All (above) in states and regional parliaments 

    • Creates a perception of winners or losers (based on arbitrary definitions and non transparent population figures - for more seats in the system) 

    • Reinforces the idea that there is a right to land which causes issues

    • Ethnic groups seeking to control territory in order to gain power in the government 

    • Take on other identity to take over territory 

NOTES: 5/6/25 ETHNIC VIOLENCE IN MYANMAR -continued

  • these measurements had a toxic effect created a hierarch of power between different ethnic group 

    • Message that group size matter

    • 0 sum competitions produced 

    • No regard for the other groups 

    • Ethnic identities don’t overlap at all 

    • Loose criteria on ethnic group

While a positive development (military withdraw from power) on one hand (electoral incentive to create a large group) expression of newfound freedoms also further reinforced ethnic over national identity(no cross over/ not working with each other)

  • 2010s took advantage of newfound freedoms( allowed ethnic minority groups to celebrate) - the military had been very coercive 

  • Had banned national ethnic days NOW LIFTED ( minority languages could be spoken in classes)

  • Formed civil society groups within their ethnic groups

  • No rallying behind one national identity —-further reinforced the 

  • Electoral democracy also exacerbated the ethnic dimension of conflict

  • Minority groups increasingly disappointed with the fact that they didn’t have power still after moving to democracy (didn’t get the representation that they expected) (drives support for armed groups)

  • Turn to violent insurgent movements — enhanced autonomy — more access to resources

  • Did little to address minority grievances 

  • Simply a battle for territory 

In the end Myanmar can be accurately described as an armed conflict country 

-  ethnicity lies at the heart of the country’s armed conflict (no trust) (no sense of security ) a literal arms race— a process of escalation 

  • a lot of armed groups in the country and the military cannot provide security 

  • Many communities have raised armed community not out of choice but out of necessity 

Today military “control” and civil war throughout the country  

  • democracy experiment ended

  • The civilians had more control than the military 

  • Most of the opposition doesn’t align with the military and the military is facing lots of defections —- declining ability to fight battles in rough terrain 

  • Military is struggling to keep control

  • Sustained rate of ethnic cleansing — fled before the 2021 coup (refugees (in Bangladesh-largest refugee settlement) mainly Rohingya-boarding full on genocide(muslims minority in a country that is mainly Buddhist )—- always face discrimination by the gov)—-the government try to say that they were never legal and they are all illegal immigrants even though they have been in the country for so long—thus very impoverished  

- the UN refers the Rohingya the largest discriminated group

  • Myanmar one of the most troubled and impoverished counties in the world. ——A failed and violent dangerous state

  • A militant group engaged in an attack on a military facility and now the military uses this to ration the mass genocide of the Rohingya ——campaign of mass ethnic cleansing 

  • Hard for children to get an education and many need humanitarian aid

  • 86% of the country is controlled by armed groups (not the same ones)

  • 2nd highest war casualties — only behind Ukraine 

  • Not a proxy war but it is worsening 

Parliamentary Executives:

  • a crucial influence on the operation of a parliamentary gov is the party balance in parliament 

  • Proportional 

  • No majority party

  • In effect the parliamentary systems has two variants one based on majority gov and the other on coalitions 

Majority Gov:

- single party with a secure majority 

- leader of the majority becomes Prime Minister 

- cabinet the formal lynchpin of the system 

- sets and controls the policy agenda 

- gov accountability is tight 

- as long as the governing party retains its majority accountability will not threaten the gov

- party cohesion is important 

- party discipline 

- where a single party can count upon disciplined majority support in the assembly parliamentary gov can be decisive perhaps excessively so

Coalition Gov:

- no one party gains a majority of seats/plurality 

- tight link between election result and gov formation weakens 

- coalition formation process 

- PM(prime minister)  usually from largest party 

-forming coalitions is a political art

-German example

- large parties must collaborate 

- sept 2021 elections: four potential coalitions 

- Examples of coalitions: Jamaica, traffic light, mickey mouse, Kenya 

Presidential Executives:

  • minority of democratic systems

  • Unitary executive 

    • Symbolic and real power

  • fixed terms in office 

  • Executive authority derived from direct election by the public 

    • Can lead to a divergence of interests 

    • But also popular support 

  • separation of powers

    • Limited powers of removal 

    • Cabinet control

    • High possibility of divided government

Effect on Parties 

Effect on judiciary 

Semi-Presidential Executives :

  • hybrid between parliamentary and presidential systems 

  • Dual executive with real powers for both

  • No symbolic office 

  • Fixed AND variable terms 

  • Division of powers varies across countries 

  • Somewhat more popular today

Presidential system:

Presidential is directly elected by population at large 

- president is ceremonial head of state and chief executive 

- legislature is elected independently of executive 

Parliamentary :

- PM indirectly elected by parliament/ legislature 

- pm is head of gov

- Ceremonial monarch or president may be head of state 

Semi-Presidential :

president is directly elected by population at large

PM or chief minister is responsible to parliament 

president may have power to appoint PM dissolve legislature 

Presidential V. Parliamentary:

Pros V Cons

- efficiency 

- rapid policy delivery 

- representation 

- deliberation 

- responsiveness 

-job security 

-Parliamentary V Presidential: Differences of structure and process not ideological 

-Difficult to argue that one is better than the other just different 

Executives in authoritarian states

- may have parliamentary of presidential systems but formal executive structures are less developed 

- central feature: lack of institutionalization 

- personal rule 

- politics take precedence over governance

- weak institutions and strong politics 

- on a constant threat watch 

- executive power in Russia 

Executives in Authoritarian States 

- executive power in communist states

- states is led by the party 

- factional divisions are important  

- Executive power in China

- an authoritarian single party country in which power is associated with indv leaders 

- chinas system formality features three different top exec positions plus a head of gov called the premier who presides over the 

  • exec power in china 

    • 3 top exec positions 

      • President of the peoples republic of china ) head of state )

      • Secretary general of the communist part (head of governing Party)

EXAM 1 —————————————————

Notes 3/4/25 Participation and Electoral Dynamics 

Individual and politics 

- Necessarily central to liberal democracies 

- All political actions by groups and individuals intended to influence the action of selection of political rulers 

Major forms of participation (attempts to influence political parties)

  • contact with gov officials 

  • Membership in parties and interest (interest groups)

  • Protest 

    • Voting —- what you want the gov to do — central to citizens —- REGULAR, FREE, AND FAIR ELECTIONS

      • In which the right to vote is secure, the votes are counted honestly, the choices are meaningful, and the elections are regularly scheduled 

  • Consumer boycotts and labor union strikes 

Electoral systems as framing mechanisms for voting 

  • elections are collective decisions —-not individual decisions 

  • Electoral systems: the rules for determine the winning candidates in elections 

    • The rules that decide how votes are cast, counted, and translated into seats in a legislature 

  • these systems vary widely around the world

  • Have a significant impart on the distribution of political power 

  • TWO important features of all electoral systems:

    • 1. How many districts

      • All democracies divide population up into electoral boundaries or constituents that are assigned a certain number of legislative seats 

        • Number vary widely

        • How the boundaries are drawn makes a difference, especially for minority groups 

        • Gerrymandering —- happens outside the US more often than in the US

        • Population size differ however the same number of seats gives the smaller states more power

        • How these boundaries are drawn can have a huge impact on who gets elected

  • 2. How votes are cast and counted 

    • 2 broad forms of electoral systems for this

    • Single member district plurality (smtp)

    • Proportional representation (PR)

Single member district plurality systems (SMDP)-not used in most places in the world (USED in the US)

- relatively large number of legislative districts 

- one legislative seat for each

- multiple candidates 

- candidate with the most votes wins 

- plurality, not majority 

- no seats awarded to the losers

- winner take all or first past the post

- “wasted” votes—-votes cast towards the losers are considered wasted

- less likely to vote for smaller parties —as they are unlikely to win as they’re votes will probably   be wasted  

-  can amplify the power of some parties, weaken others 

HOW votes are counted 

  • single member district majority systems 

    • Mechanisms to ensure winner is elected by majority 

      • Usually a two-round election

        • First ballot(everyones name is on the ballot)

        • Second ballot (top two vote receivers)

  • advantage vs plurality: wider outreach 

  • Disadvantage: longer election season

  • French systems —- bigger parties look to the smaller parties that lost look to them to try and bargain for their parties support —- feels less like a wasted vote for those that voted for the smaller party (LOTS OF BARGAINING) 

NOTES 3/6/25

 How votes are counted:

  • proportional Representation(PR)

    • A majority of the worlds democracies 

    • Multi member districts: 

      • Smaller number of larger electoral districts with several seats in each

  • vote for parties rather than candidates 

  • Parties receives seats in proportion to their share of popular vote 

  • Because PR is based on multimember districts elections are not centered on competitions between individuals 

    • Party lists

  • PR voters are more willing to vote for small parties 

    • Result: many more parties in the legislature 

    • Thresholds (and wasted voted)

- party discipline and ideology may be more pronounced 

  • Mixed member systems(German system)

    • All citizens live in both a single member district and a multimember district —-even half 

    • Voters cast two ballots —-other is a closed PR Vote

Ranked choice voting systems 

  • a topic of debate in the US in response to the ways SMDP(single member district system) works

  • RVC allows each voter to rank multiple candidates for the same office on a ballot in order of preference rather than making a single choice 

  • Usage today 

  • The case for it (what the proponents say)

  • The case against ( what the critics argue) 

ELECTORAL OUTCOMES 

Which systems is more representative?

  • some think it makes no difference which you choose as long as majority rule and universal suffrage are applied 

  • SUPPORTERS of proportional representation noted that PR:

    • Increases chances of small parties 

    • Allows for a greater range of small parties 

    • Increases the competition of ideas

    • Encourages coalitions and consensus 

    • Expands representation of underrepresented groups 

Critics of proportional representation note that PR produces:

  • a wider array of legislative parties and a broader representation of ideological positions which can lead to parliamentary instability 

  • Allows for representation of more radical and extreme groups 

  • Weak constituent candidate linkages 

Supporters of single member district systems not SMD systems :

- create a clear linkage between district and representative 

- less likely to have coalition governments 

- allow for the creation of large parties 

- favor moderate parties 

- are stable 

- and are more effective 

NOTES 3/11/25 Electoral Outcomes

  • critics of SMD systems note that they:

    • Punish small parties 

    • And in so doing limit the fun representation of interests

Which is preferable: 

Most democratic systems use some variant of pr and most of them have maintained very moderate and stable political systems 

  • if a country has a consensual political culture a generally centrist electorate and an established two party system switching to pr may have little impact 

  • If a country is more conflictual and ideologically diverse such as Israel or Italy pr tends to produce larger numbers of parties with more polarized ideologies 

Political competition 

  • democracies require more than just political participation 

  • Competition is vital 

    • One avenue of democratic competition: political parties 

    • Political parties seek to gain office versus where interest groups are looking to influence those in office

    • Political parties compete to control gov and state

    • Goals :

      • To win political office 

      • To gain political power

      • To control policy making process 

  • political parties are vital to liberal democracy Bec broadly they serve two central functions:

    • Help est means by which majority can rule 

      • Bring groups and ideas together in a loose function 

      • Prevent the tyranny of the majority 

  • create the means by which politicians can be held accountable by the electorate and fellow political elites 

    • Voters are able to evaluate a group of politicians based on these goals and promises did they do what they promised 

    • Party serve as linkage mechanisms 

  • more specific functions of parties in liberal democracies: 

    • Recruitment of leaders 

    • Organize government 

    • Aggregate and articulate demands 

    • Voters point of reference 

    • Recruit and mobilize electorate 

  • play a significant role in political development 

    • Encourage participation 

    • Create legitimacy 

    • Sense of national integration 

    • Conflict management 

    • Political socialization 

  • all parties perform these functions although behavior varies 

Party Systems 

As orgs parties vary greatly in terms of membership size structure of organization 

  • also variations on number of parties active in any political system 

  • Number of parties reflect:

    • Ideology, political cultures, electoral law method of election 

Party system: the array of parties operating in a country 

  • number of parties and extent of competition 

    • This is influenced by: 

      • Nature of the political system as a whole

      • Cleavage patterns

      • Channels for competition 

  • number of parties has an important impact on a nations politics 

NOTES 3/27/25 Party system types 

  • two party systems

    • Product of electoral systems, political culture, history 

    • Two equally large parties dominate 

      • And alternate in power 

      • Very competitive systems- no coalition governments 

      • Increasingly unusual 

      • Today only the US provides a “perfect” examples of a two party system 

      • But also in other Anglo-American countries (UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand)

  • Multiparty systems 

    • Most frequent and most complex system 

    • Reflect societal divisions that translate into political cleavages and electoral laws

    • Moderate multiparty systems-open, competitive, consensual (for cooperation) 

    • Limited number of parties 

    • Coalition government common

      • Partial alternate in power

      • Partisan competition is mild 

    • Extreme multiparty systems 

      • Highly fragmented (more than 5-6)(no party usually don’t receive more than 20% of the votes)

      • Fractious multiparty coalitions (Italy, Belgium, Israel 

  • multiparty systems tend to be less stake because it is harder to maintain a legislative majority 

  • The mentality of political parties 

  • E.E. Shattschneider formulation: political parties created modern democracy and modern democracy is unthinkable save in terms of the parties 

  • Today party systems face challenges 

    • Declining party membership 

    • Declining voter turnout 

    • Increasing party system volatility 

    • Open hostility to parties 

What are the implications of declining party influence 

  • maybe not all bad news 

  • However theres still reason for concern 

    • Issues of democratic accountability

NOTES POLITICAL PARTIES 4/1/25

What are the implications of declining party influence?

  • maybe not all bad news 

  • However theres still reason for concern 

    • Issues of democratic accountability 

    • Greater political unrest 

    • Risks of costly democratic decline

    • Broader economic cost

    • Given the critical role of parties in a democracy what can be done to arrest these patterns?

      • Electoral laws 

      • Voting age -16

      • Compulsory voting

      • Election frequency 

      • Role of social media and improved communication 

      • Parties will continue to play an important role 

        • Presenting policies to the electorate 

        • Structuring the work of the legislature 

        • Recruiting political leaders 

        • Legitimizing political regimes 

NOTES 4/3/25

Module 5 Poverty and inequality 

Development: a complex process

  • economic 

  • Social

  • Political 

  • Cultural 

  • Environmental 

  • Expansion of range of choices available to the individual and society 

  • Or reaching an acceptable standard of living for all people by improving social and economic conditions 

-measuring development by the wealth of places: 

- gross domestic product

- value of all goods and services in an economy including everything produced by all people and companies 

  • purchasing power parity 

    • Method for adjusting exchange rates to account for differences in living costs 

  • measuring development by the welfare of people

    • Human development index

    • Life expectancy, infant mortality, basic literacy 

    • Based on the idea that human development means that people have long and healthy lives, are knowledgeable and have decent standard of living 

    • Expected years of schooling and how long are students enrolled 

    • HDI gives a more accurate picture of a country’s situation 

    • Promoting development in the post world war 2 era 

      • Goals of development policies:

      • Economic well being 

  • Millennium development goals 

  • Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty 

  • Achieve universal primary education 

  • Promote gender equality and empower women

  • Reduce child mortality 

  • Improve maternal health 

  • Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria ad other diseases 

  • Ensure environmental stability 

  • Develop a global partnership for development 

Millennium Development Goals: evaluation in 2015 indicate both success and failures

  • gender inequality persisted

  • Larger gaps between the richest and the poorest and urban and rural areas still exist 

  • The poor are the most affected by climate change 

  • A turn to sustainable development 

  • Meeting todays needs and planning for the country’s growth without creating problems for future generations 

  • 2015: a new set of 17 UN objectives 

    • Sustainable development goals 2030

    • First 6 goals dress the most basic needs: food health clean water and equal access for all

    • Next 6 focus on actions that will reduce inequality from access to engird economic growth infrastructure and safe human settlements to sustainable patterns of consumption and production 

    • The final five goals emphasize protecting the earth from climate change supporting conservation and promoting a peaceful global environment that can facilitate cooperation 

NOTES 4/8/25 Promoting development

  • the sustainable development goals(SDG): the state of things today 

    • Early slow but steady progress 

    • Since 2019: global headwinds 

      • Only 17% are on track to achieved 

      • Half minimal progress 

      • Over a third stalled or even regressed 

        • Pandemic 

        • Poverty 

        • Hunger 

        • Health 

        • Education 

        • Gender equality 

        • Climate and biodiversity 

        • Violent crime and arms trafficking 

        • Spreading conflict 

  • so overall progress has been elusive 

Global Poverty 

  • thinking about SDG #1: ending poverty in all its forms everywhere 

    • Defining poverty 

      • UN, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity 

      • Lack of basic capacity provided by material possessions or money to participate effectively in society 

      • A lack of access to essential resources and basic necessities required for a healthy and dignified life 

  • in every country of the world there are people living in poverty 

    • Measuring poverty 

      • A poverty line

      • The definition of poverty differs between countries 

        • The poverty line in America 

          • 2025: for a single person $15,650 annually while for a family of 4 its 32,150 

  • the international poverty line: $2.15 a day

    • Why use an international poverty line?

    • Important to do more than just count the poor 

    • The experience of poverty varies by location 

      • North: poverty cushioned to some extent 

      • South: no safety nets 

  • extreme poverty: the extreme deprivation of basic human needs

  • In 1990 more than a third of the worlds population - 1.8 billion people- lived in extreme poverty

  • In the 25 years from 19990 to 2015 the extreme poverty rate dropped an average point per year - from nearly 36% to 10%

  • Nearly 1.1 billion fewer people are living in extreme poverty than in 1990. In 2015 736 million people lived on less than $1.90 a day down from 1.85 billion on 1990

  • While poverty rates declined in all regions progress was uneven 

  • Today the majority of the global poor live in rural areas, poorly educated, unemployed in the agricultural sector, and under the age of 18

  • Often live in fragile countries and remote areas 

  • Access to good schools, health care, electricity, safe water, and other critical services remains elusive for many people often determined by socioeconomic status, gender ethnicity and geography 

  • Moreover, for those who have been able to move out of poverty, progress is often temporary 

  • Forecasts: global poverty is not declining fast enough 

  • Today, extreme poverty is increasingly concentrated in a set of countries that have achieved only limited development success in recent decades and whose prospects for rapid growth appear slim 

  • In particular extreme poverty today is largely about Africa

  • extreme poverty : the trends 

    • The covid effect 

      • The share of the worlds population living in extreme poverty rose from 8.9 per cent in 2019 to 9.7 per cent in 2020

      • In contrast extreme poverty continued to decline in upper middle and high income countries attributed to swift fiscal support for vulnerable groups 

      • The virus in developing countries 

  • some recovery in the aftermath of the pandemic 

    • By 2022 extreme poverty had returned to pre pandemic levels in most countries except low income ones 

  • today 

    • 8.5 percent of the global population almost 700 million people -live on less than $2.15 per day

  • The African dimension 

    • 2024 sub-saharan Africa accounted for 16 % of the worlds population but 67$%  of the people living in extreme poverty 

    • 429 million people 

    • Nigeria, drum Tanzania, Mozambique