Death, Bodies, and Cannibalism

Toraja Funerals and Understanding of Death

• Ten ethnic groups inhabit the region, influencing perspectives on death and the body.
• Funerals reveal cultural understanding of death; in Toraja, death is not immediate.
• The deceased "hangs out" until the family can afford a lavish funeral.
• The funeral includes a large festival, water buffalo fights, sacrifices, a big meal, and contributions.
• Only after interment in a spinal rescue case is the individual considered deceased.
• During the waiting period, the body is treated as sick, reflecting its transitional state.
• Favorite meals and cigarettes are offered to the corpse, treating them as if alive.
• The body is embalmed, dried, and rubbed with spices to mask the smell—a form of mummification.
• Organs are not removed during the embalming process.
• Afterlife beliefs involve the dead remaining active in society, potentially bringing good or bad fortune depending on their spirit's happiness.

The Significance of Lavish Funerals

• Lavish funerals ensure a proper send-off, providing the deceased with necessities in the afterlife.
• The spirit's potential anger could negatively impact the living if the funeral is inadequate.
• Funerals maintain social connections and prevent loss of contact.
• Marcel Mose's "The Gift" defines a gift as a relationship of debt, obligating the recipient to reciprocate.
• Gifts create and maintain social bonds, exemplified by funeral contributions.
• Obligations to provide water buffaloes and participate in funeral celebrations ensure continued contact between relatives.
• These debts are transferable to future generations.

Varanasi, India: Contrasting Views on Death

• Hindu understanding of the body differs significantly; it's seen as a mere vessel after death.
• The body is treated as trash and is handled by the "untouchables" (the Dom).
• Jewelry on the body loses sentimental value and becomes a mere object.
• Cremation in Varanasi is believed to expedite enlightenment and reincarnation.
• Cremations are performed by the Dom, illustrating the caste system's hierarchy.
• The caste system discriminates based on occupation, with certain jobs (like cremating bodies or handling trash) relegated to the lowest social strata.
• Individuals are born into these castes and historically couldn't change occupations.
• Last names often reveal caste, though some young Indians invent new last names to transcend the system.
• Despite attempts to break free, the caste system remains prevalent in marriage and social interactions.

American Perspectives on Death and the Body

• In America, death is viewed as a natural fact of life.
• Bodies are seen as simply "there" and autopsies are performed for specific reasons.
• Autopsies aim to determine the cause of death, providing closure for the family.
• They also investigate potential foul play.
• Bodies that have been autopsied are treated as sources of information, like puzzles to be solved.
• The American view of the afterlife is not extensively discussed in the transcript.
• America's litigious nature means autopsies are more common, driven by the potential for financial compensation.

Cannibal Epistemology: Comparing Cannibalism

• Beth Conglin's work compares cannibalism in Europe and South America.
• Endocannibalism involves consuming remains of family or community members, often tied to grieving (e.g., Barawan funerals).
• Exocannibalism is the consumption of remains of strangers, often linked to consumerism and commodification for health.
• The term "endo" relates to interior, while "exo" relates to exterior.

Cannibalism as a Political Tool

• Kaufman argues cannibalism accusations asserted European superiority and justified violent conquest during colonialism.
• Queen Isabella of Spain used cannibalism accusations to gain support for colonialism, portraying indigenous people as evil.
• Cannibalism accusations served political, economic, and inter-ethnic agendas, and were used as propaganda.
• A cartoon from the 1930s portrays natives as eagerly anticipating consuming human flesh, reinforcing racist stereotypes.
• European monarchs used cannibalism as the quintessential expression of savagery to justify colonial projects, including violence, death, disease, and slavery.

Contrasting Cannibalistic Practices in Europe

• Cannibalism in Europe differed significantly from that in South America, serving as a medicinal therapy until the 18th century.
• Europeans consumed human flesh while accusing non-Westerners of cannibalism.
• Corpses, often from Egypt (mummies), were used to treat illnesses like epilepsy and arthritis.
• The Paracelsian School of Medicine used human remains, while the Galenist School used animal products; the latter eventually became dominant.

The Consumption of Human Body Parts as Medicine

• Flesh, heart, bones, bone marrow, and blood were consumed for medicinal purposes.
• Blood from violently killed young individuals was considered the best, with people trying to collect it during beheadings.
• This practice was based on mimicry or sympathetic magic, where consuming a young person's blood was believed to transfer their vitality.
• A recipe for preparing mummy involved using the cadaver of a 24-year-old redhead who died violently, treating the flesh with spices and spirits.
• Mummy parts were ground into powder and consumed in pill form.
• Body fat from deceased individuals was used to dress wounds.

Historical Perspectives and Cognitive Dissonance

• In the 1600s and 1700s, lack of mass media meant limited information, with opinions often shaped by authority figures.
• Many consuming human remains didn't perceive it as cannibalism, especially when buying processed products.
• Europeans may have experienced cognitive dissonance, rationalizing their cannibalistic practices as more civilized.
• The connection between the product and its origin (e.g., a mummy) was often obscure due to commodity chains.

Cannibalism in Modern Consumerism

• Even today, products like face cream made from foreskins are available, with consumers often prioritizing effectiveness over ethical concerns.
• The focus shifts to quality control and price per unit rather than the product's origin.

Cannibalism Among the Warri

• Conklin's fieldwork revealed that she had never witnessed a single act of cannibalism directly.
• The Wari' practice endocannibalism as a funerary rite to honor the dead and express compassion for grieving kin.
• Anthropologists have not witnessed cannibalism among the Wari; accounts primarily come from missionaries, linguists, and elders' testimonies.
• Most accusations of cannibalism in South America were fraudulent.
• Endocannibalism is not about consumerism but about social relationships and group welfare.

Concept Check: Cannibalism Examples

• The statement "Exempt cannibalism is characterized by social relationships between the leader and the human" is false.
• The statement "Warren denied that their ancestors participated in camel" is false.

Dios de la Muertos (Day of the Dead) in Oaxaca

• Kristen Norgett's article focuses on what Dios de la Muertos reveals about Oaxacan conceptions and sociology.
• Dia de Muertos is celebrated throughout Latin America with regional variations, focusing on Oaxaca.
• In Oaxaca, November 1st is Dia de los Angelitos (for deceased babies and children), and November 2nd is for adults.
• Day of the Dead celebrations reveal social relationships and how Oaxacans conceptualize the afterlife.
• During the day of the Dead, Souls pass from purgatory to heaven, offering opportunities for the soul serving penance to gather with their living relatives.

Day of the Dead Observances and Beliefs

• Altars are built in homes, offering special foods (often favorites of the deceased), flowers, candles, and toys.
• Families clean, repaint, and adorn graves in cemeteries.
• Spirits can retaliate against the living if not honored properly.
• The deceased and living are pulled into the same moral universe, influenced by ideas about good behavior and bad behavior.

Afterlife and Social Relationships in Oaxaca

• The Day of the Dead reveals Oaxaca's cosmology and vision of the universe.
• It draws the living and dead into the same moral universe.
• Celebrations involve sharing common memories and recounting narratives, involving the entire community.
• Caring and respecting the dead implies care and respect for the living.
• Cemeteries become temporary paradises on earth, rejoicing in a sensuous universe of plenty.

Foods and Social Interactions

• Food facilitates and symbolizes social interactions; special dishes include mole, tamales, and chocolate.
• Food is shared and consumed by both the living and the dead; the dead consume the essence of it.
• Refusing offered food is considered disrespectful.
• Offerings are made "con comfianza," implying intimacy. community.

How People Honor the Dead During the Day of the Dead.

• Spirits are believed to consume the essence of the food that is offered to them.