Final Exam 2024
1. Definition of Psychology – The scientific study of mental activity (MIND) and behavior, which depend on the processing in the brain.
2. Approaches and Theories:
Biological – Our genes, DNA, and physical makeup influence our personality and behavior. Twin studies show strong evidence that personality has a biological component.
Cognitive – Jean Piaget
How we process, store, and use information influences our behavior. Thinking is another form of behavior. Language, problem-solving, memory.
Humanistic – Carl Rogers
You have the freedom to choose your destiny. Emphasizes FREE WILL
Person-Centered - A method of helping others focus on the the person, not their problem
Unconditional Positive Regard - Loved regardless of his or her actions
Behaviorism – John Watson
A person’s behavior is determined by the rewards and consequences they get from the environment.
You are a product of your environment
Observable behavior
The Trait Theory – OCEAN (online test you did for me on the Big Five Traits)
Personality traits are stable across time, especially after age 30
Help to predict all kinds of different behaviors
Openness, Conscientious, Extraverted, Agreeable, and Neurotic
Personality
Projective measures: personality tests that examine unconscious processes
by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli
Inkblot tests
Self-Report Measures: personality tests that use questionnaires to let people respond to items that reveal traits and behaviors (NEO Personality Inventory)
Twin Studies
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham Maslow
Lower needs to be met first
Self-Actualization - reaching your maximum potential
BIO>SAFE>BELONG>ESTEEM>SELF
Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytical – Sigmund Freud believed hidden motives influenced personality
Unconscious - contains material the mind cannot easily retrieve
The conscious level of our mental activity consists of the thoughts that we are aware of (ego)
The preconscious level consists of content that is not currently in our awareness but that could be brought to awareness. (superego)
3 Divisions of the Mind –
Id – (pleasure principle) selfish. Its goals are to avoid pain and get pleasure
Ego – (reality principle) Its goals are to satisfy the id’s demands and superego's wishes
Superego – the conscience. Controls morals and guilty feelings.
Defense Mechanisms – processes used to get rid of ego anxiety or stress.
Repression – motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses. Excluding source of anxiety from awareness.
Denial – Motivated forgetting of current distressing experiences. Refusing to acknowledge the source of anxiety.
Rationalization- Providing reasonable-sounding explanations for unreasonable behaviors or failures. Creating a seemingly logical reason or excuse for behavior that might otherwise be shameful.
Reaction formation – Transforming an anxiety-producing experience into its opposite. Warding off an uncomfortable thought by overemphasizing its opposite. Love-hate.
Displacement – Directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a more acceptable one. Shifting the attention of emotion from one object to another, easier target.
Sublimation - Transforming a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired and socially valued goal. Channeling socially unacceptable impulses into constructive, even admirable behavior.
Locus of Control: people’s perception of whether they control the rewards and punishments they experience
Internal locus – own actions influence the events and outcomes
External locus - other forces (outside of your control)influence the events and outcomes
3. Methods of Research:
Survey (Self Report Questionnaires) – a descriptive method that consists of obtaining self-reports from research participants.
Case Study – Involve intensive examination of a few unique people or organizations.
Correlation – Examine how variables are naturally related in the real world.
Positive Correlation – as one increases, so does the other
Negative Correlation – as one increases, the other decreases
Zero Correlation - no relationship between variables
Experiment – Research methods that test a causal hypothesis by manipulating independent variables and measuring the effects on dependent variables
Hypothesis – educated guess
Independent Variable – manipulated (cause)
Dependent Variable – affected by the manipulation (effect)
4. The Brain and Nervous System:
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5. Sleep and Drugs:
REM Sleep – dream stage
Circadian Rhythm – regulation of biological cycles into regular, daily patterns
Stage 1 - theta waves (drifting off) light sleep Stage 2 - K-complexes regular sleep Stage 3 - delta waves Stage 4 - deep sleep
Insomnia – the repeated inability to sleep
Sleep Apnea – snore a lot
Narcolepsy – can't stay awake during normal waking hours
Night Terrors – sudden waken episodes characterized by screaming
6. Learning:
Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response
Neutral Stimulus (NS)- anything not previously associated with the unconditioned response (metronome)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- a stimulus that naturally elicits a response without any prior learning (food)
Unconditioned Response (UR)- a response that does not have to be learned such as a reflex (salivation)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
Conditioned Response (CR)- a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned
Operant Conditioning – B.F. Skinner
how animals operate on their environments to produce effects
Reinforcement – makes a behavior more likely to be repeated
Positive Reinforcement – add stimulus, increases behavior
Negative Reinforcement – removes stimulus, increases behavior
Punishment – makes a behavior less likely to occur again
Habituation – decrease in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus
7. Mental Disorders:
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1. Definition of Psychology – The scientific study of mental activity (MIND) and behavior, which depend on the processing in the brain.
2. Approaches and Theories:
Biological – Our genes, DNA, and physical makeup influence our personality and behavior. Twin studies show strong evidence that personality has a biological component.
Cognitive – Jean Piaget
How we process, store, and use information influences our behavior. Thinking is another form of behavior. Language, problem-solving, memory.
Humanistic – Carl Rogers
You have the freedom to choose your destiny. Emphasizes FREE WILL
Person-Centered - A method of helping others focus on the the person, not their problem
Unconditional Positive Regard - Loved regardless of his or her actions
Behaviorism – John Watson
A person’s behavior is determined by the rewards and consequences they get from the environment.
You are a product of your environment
Observable behavior
The Trait Theory – OCEAN (online test you did for me on the Big Five Traits)
Personality traits are stable across time, especially after age 30
Help to predict all kinds of different behaviors
Openness, Conscientious, Extraverted, Agreeable, and Neurotic
Personality
Projective measures: personality tests that examine unconscious processes
by having people interpret ambiguous stimuli
Inkblot tests
Self-Report Measures: personality tests that use questionnaires to let people respond to items that reveal traits and behaviors (NEO Personality Inventory)
Twin Studies
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs – Abraham Maslow
Lower needs to be met first
Self-Actualization - reaching your maximum potential
BIO>SAFE>BELONG>ESTEEM>SELF
Psychodynamic/Psychoanalytical – Sigmund Freud believed hidden motives influenced personality
Unconscious - contains material the mind cannot easily retrieve
The conscious level of our mental activity consists of the thoughts that we are aware of (ego)
The preconscious level consists of content that is not currently in our awareness but that could be brought to awareness. (superego)
3 Divisions of the Mind –
Id – (pleasure principle) selfish. Its goals are to avoid pain and get pleasure
Ego – (reality principle) Its goals are to satisfy the id’s demands and superego's wishes
Superego – the conscience. Controls morals and guilty feelings.
Defense Mechanisms – processes used to get rid of ego anxiety or stress.
Repression – motivated forgetting of emotionally threatening memories or impulses. Excluding source of anxiety from awareness.
Denial – Motivated forgetting of current distressing experiences. Refusing to acknowledge the source of anxiety.
Rationalization- Providing reasonable-sounding explanations for unreasonable behaviors or failures. Creating a seemingly logical reason or excuse for behavior that might otherwise be shameful.
Reaction formation – Transforming an anxiety-producing experience into its opposite. Warding off an uncomfortable thought by overemphasizing its opposite. Love-hate.
Displacement – Directing an impulse from a socially unacceptable target onto a more acceptable one. Shifting the attention of emotion from one object to another, easier target.
Sublimation - Transforming a socially unacceptable impulse into an admired and socially valued goal. Channeling socially unacceptable impulses into constructive, even admirable behavior.
Locus of Control: people’s perception of whether they control the rewards and punishments they experience
Internal locus – own actions influence the events and outcomes
External locus - other forces (outside of your control)influence the events and outcomes
3. Methods of Research:
Survey (Self Report Questionnaires) – a descriptive method that consists of obtaining self-reports from research participants.
Case Study – Involve intensive examination of a few unique people or organizations.
Correlation – Examine how variables are naturally related in the real world.
Positive Correlation – as one increases, so does the other
Negative Correlation – as one increases, the other decreases
Zero Correlation - no relationship between variables
Experiment – Research methods that test a causal hypothesis by manipulating independent variables and measuring the effects on dependent variables
Hypothesis – educated guess
Independent Variable – manipulated (cause)
Dependent Variable – affected by the manipulation (effect)
4. The Brain and Nervous System:
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5. Sleep and Drugs:
REM Sleep – dream stage
Circadian Rhythm – regulation of biological cycles into regular, daily patterns
Stage 1 - theta waves (drifting off) light sleep Stage 2 - K-complexes regular sleep Stage 3 - delta waves Stage 4 - deep sleep
Insomnia – the repeated inability to sleep
Sleep Apnea – snore a lot
Narcolepsy – can't stay awake during normal waking hours
Night Terrors – sudden waken episodes characterized by screaming
6. Learning:
Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
type of learned response in which a neutral object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response
Neutral Stimulus (NS)- anything not previously associated with the unconditioned response (metronome)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- a stimulus that naturally elicits a response without any prior learning (food)
Unconditioned Response (UR)- a response that does not have to be learned such as a reflex (salivation)
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- a stimulus that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
Conditioned Response (CR)- a response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned
Operant Conditioning – B.F. Skinner
how animals operate on their environments to produce effects
Reinforcement – makes a behavior more likely to be repeated
Positive Reinforcement – add stimulus, increases behavior
Negative Reinforcement – removes stimulus, increases behavior
Punishment – makes a behavior less likely to occur again
Habituation – decrease in behavioral response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus
7. Mental Disorders:
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