Unit 0 Vocab
Experimental vs. non-experimental: Non-experimental research designs do not have any manipulation or control of any variables. It relies on descriptive, observational, or correlational data. Experimental research designs must manipulate a variable to determine its effects on a control group.
Independent variable (IV) - In a variable, the factor that is manipulated:is the variable whose effect is being studied.
Meta-analysis: a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.
Naturalistic observation - a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate or control the situation.
Dependent variable (DV) : In an experiment, the outcome that is measured is the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated.
Confounding variables: a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.
Random assignment - Assigning participants to experiment and control groups by chance, thus minimizing pre existing differences between the different
Population: All those in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn. (note: except for national studies, this does not refer to a country’s whole population.)
Sample:
Random sampling - a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
Representative samples - A subset of a population used to reflect the characteristics of the larger group.
Convenience samples
Sampling bias - a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.
Generalizability - is a measure of how useful the results of a study are for a broader group of people or situations
Experimental group - in an experiment, the group exposed to the treatment that is, to one version of the independent variable
Control group - In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of a treatment.
Placebo group - affect experimental results caused by expectation alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
Placebo effect-Experimental results caused by expectations alone;any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assume is an active agent
Single-blind procedure the subjects do not know all of the information about the study while it is occurring, especially which group (experimental or control) they belong to
Double-blind procedure-When neither the participant in the study nor the person giving the study know who is in the control group and who is in the experimental group.
Experimenter bias-When the experimenter affects the results of their own study because of their expectations.
Case study -Experimental results caused by expectations alone;any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assume is an active agent
Correlation (does not equal causation) : a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus how well either fact repredicts the other.
Positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other also increases, showing a direct relationship.
Negative correlation: Negative correlation means as one variable increases, the other decreases, showing an inverse relationship.
Directionality problem: The directionality problem occurs when it's unclear which variable influences the other in a correlation study.
Third-variable problem: The third variable problem occurs when an unmeasured variable influences both variables being studied, causing false correlations.
Scatter plots graphed clusters of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between two variables. The amount of scattered suggests the strengths of the correlation
%
Quantitative measures (e.g. Likert scales): Quantitative measures, like Likert scales, use numerical values to assess attitudes or opinions by rating responses on a scale.
Qualitative measures (e.g. structured interviews) : qualitative measures, such as structured interviews, collect detailed, descriptive data by asking open-ended questions, allowing for in-depth understanding of psychological phenomena.
Surveys - a technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors in a particular group.
Framing-The way that a problem is presented to someone, and it can drastically change that person's view or reaction to the problem.
Social desirability bias - a type of response bias that is the tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.
Self-report bias - a methodological problem that arises when researchers rely on asking people to describe their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors rather than measuring these directly and objectively.
Hypothesis - a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
Falsifiability - the logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be shown to be false by an observation or experiment.
Operational definitions - the statement of procedures the researcher is going to use in order to measure a specific variable.
Replication and Peer Review - Psychologists and other social science researchers often use replication studies to test the validity of existing studies.
Ethical guidelines - professional recommendations and advice for psychologists to follow as they do research or provide treatments.
Institutional review board (for human and non-human research)
Informed consent - giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
Informed assent - an agreement by an individual not competent to give legally valid informed consent.
Protection from harm - All psychologists have the ethical obligation to ensure that their participants are safe from psychological and physiological harm.
Confidentiality of participants - only the investigator(s) can identify the responses of individual participants.
Minimal deception-If the participants are deceived in any way about the nature of the study, the deception must not be so extreme as to invalidate the informed consent.
Confederates - An aide of the experimenter who poses as a participant but whose behavior is rehearsed prior to the experiment.
Debriefing - When an experimenter tells the subject more information about the study's purpose and procedures after the study is completed.
Central tendency (mean, median, mode) Measures of variation (range and interpret standard deviation)
Normal curve (percentages and percentiles)- The hypothetical bell-shaped distribution curve that occurs when a normal distribution is plotted as a frequency polygon.
Positive and negative skewed - Negatively skewed. A distribution of scores in which scores are concentrated in the high end of the distribution. Positively skewed. Distribution of scores in which scores are concentrated in the low end of the distribution.
Bimodal distributions - a mixture of two normal distributions with the same variance but different means.
Regression toward the mean - a statistical phenomenon describing how variables much higher or lower than the mean are often much closer to the mean when measured a second time.
Statistical significance - it is whether any differences observed between groups being studied are "real" or if they're likely due just to chance.
Effect sizes - tells you how meaningful the relationship between variables or the difference between groups is.
Cognitive biases (confirmation bias, hindsight bias, overconfidence) -Cognitive biases are errors in thinking that can lead us to make poor decisions. Confirmation bias is when we only pay attention to information that supports what we already believe and ignore anything that disagrees. Hindsight bias is when we think we knew the outcome of an event all along, after it had already happened. Overconfidence bias is when we overestimate our own abilities or knowledge, believing we're better or more accurate than we really are.
Sampling bias - Sampling bias occurs when the sample collected is not representative of the population being studied, leading to skewed results and inaccurate conclusions.