• People communicate every day to establish and maintain relationships, understand themselves, and find meaning in daily life.

• Successful communication requires understanding the relationship between words and sentences and the speech acts they represent.

• Strategies must be used to start and maintain a conversation.

• Types of communicative strategies include nomination, restriction, and turn-taking.

Nomination:

• Nomination is used to establish a topic in a conversation.

• It can be done by starting off with news inquiries or announcements.

• Keep the conversational environment open for opinions until the prior topic shuts down easily and initiates a smooth end.

Restriction:

• Restriction refers to limitations a speaker may have in communication.

• Specific instructions in different contexts confine what can be said.

• Stay on point and avoid sideswiping from the topic to avoid communication breakdown.

Turn-taking:

• Turn-taking is the process of deciding who gets to speak in a conversation.

• Give all communicators a chance to speak.

• Be polite and avoid hogging the conversation.

Topic Control:

• Topic control is achieved cooperatively.

• Use minimal responses, tag questions, and laughter to be actively involved without dominating the conversation.

• Topic control covers how procedural formality or informality affects the development of a topic in conversations.

Topic Shifting:

• Be intuitive when shifting from one topic to another.

• Use effective conversational transitions to indicate a shift.

• Topic shifting involves moving from one topic to another.

Repair:

• Speakers address and correct problems in understanding the conversation.

• Seek to initiate the repair.

• Repair refers to addressing problems in speaking, listening, and comprehending in a conversation.

Termination:

• The topic initiator usually signals the end of the discussion.

• Signal the end of the topic through concluding cues and soliciting agreement from other participants.

• Termination refers to expressions that end a topic in a conversation.

Speech writing process

• The speech writing process follows certain steps or processes.

• It is recursive, allowing for multiple drafts before settling on the right one.

• Components of the speech writing process include (1) audience analysis, determining the purpose of the speech, selecting a topic, gathering data

• (2) selecting a speech pattern, rehearsing, preparing an outline, creating the body of the speech, preparing the introduction, and preparing the conclusion.

• (3) editing/revising

Audience Analysis:

• Look into the profile of the target audience to tailor-fit the speech content and delivery.

• Consider demographics age range, male-female ratio, educational background etcetra

• situation time venue occasion and size

• psychology values, beliefs, attitudes, preferences, cultural and racial ideologies

Purpose of the Speech:

• The purpose for writing and delivering the speech can be classified into three

• Informative speech

  • Provides the audience with a clear understanding of the concept or idea presented by the speaker

• An entertainment speech

  • Provides the audience with amusement

• Persuasive speech

  • Provides the audience with well-argued ideas that can influence their own beliefs

• General Purpose and Specific Purpose of a speech

  • To entertain Grade 11 students with funny experiences in automated election

  • To entertain Grade 11 students with interesting observations of people who lack information literacy

  • To entertain Grade 11 students with success stories of people in the community

  • To persuade school administrators to switch from manual to automated student government election

  • To persuade Grade 11 students to develop information literacy skills

  • To persuade school administrators to promote financial literacy among students

• Strategies for selecting a topic

  • Using personal experiences

  • Discussing with family members or friends

  • Free writing

  • Listing

  • Asking questions

  • Semantic webbing

• The topic is your focal point of your speech, which can be determined once you have decided on your purpose

• Narrowing down a topic

  • Making the main idea more specific and focused

• Example of narrowing down a topic

  • General topic: Effective money management

  • Specific topic: Defining and developing effective money management skills of Grade 11 students

• Data gathering stage

  • Collecting ideas, information, sources, and references relevant to the specific topic

  • Can be done through library research, browsing the web, observing related phenomena, or conducting interviews or surveys

Writing Patterns for Organizing ideas

• Writing patterns for organizing ideas

  • Biographical

    • Presents descriptions of your life or of a person, famous or not

  • Categorical/Topical

    • Presents related categories supporting the topic

  • Causal

  • Presents cause-effect relationships

  • Chronological

    • Presents the idea in time order

  • Comparison/Contrast

    • Presents comparison/contrast of two or three points

  • Problem Solution

    • Presents an identified problem, its causes, and recommended solutions

• Examples of writing patterns

  • Biographical: Describing the life and works of the late former President Ramon Magsaysay

  • Categorical/Topical: Explaining why the community members should promote reducing, reusing, and recycling

  • Causal: Explaining the possible effects of overeating to one's health

  • Chronological: Describing the significant events before, during, and after the 1986 EDSA Revolution or People Power

  • Comparison/Contrast: Explaining why living in the Philippines is better than living in Australia

  • Problem-solution: Explaining the reasons for the identified problem and supporting the government's recommended solutions to increase the literacy rate in the Philippines

Outline

• Importance of an outline

  • Helps organize ideas and ensure they align with the main idea or message

• Elements of an outline

  • Introduction, body, and conclusion

• Suggested formats for an outline

  • Table format

    • Introduction: State the message of the speech and discuss the environmental problem of improper waste disposal

    • Body: Explain how reducing, reusing, and recycling can eliminate wastes and protect the environment

    • Conclusion: Restate the specific purpose of the speech and call for action

  • List format: Provides a hierarchical list of ideas and details related to the specific topic

• Body of the speech

  • Provides explanations, examples, or any details that can help you deliver your purpose and explain the main idea of your speech

• Strategies to highlight the main idea in the body of the speech

  • Present real-life or practical examples

  • Show statistics

  • Present comparisons

  • Share ideas from experts or practitioners

• Strategies for the introduction of the speech

  • Use a real-life experience or practical examples connected to the subject

  • Start with a familiar or strong quote and explain its meaning

  • Use facts or statistics to highlight their importance

  • Tell a personal story to illustrate the point

• Strategies for the conclusion of the speech

  • Restate the main idea

  • Use positive examples, encouraging words, or memorable lines to leave a lasting impression

  • Ask thought-provoking questions

• Editing/Revising the written speech

  • Correcting errors in mechanics (grammar, punctuation, capitalization, etc.)

  • Six power principles for speech editing:

    • Edit for focus: Ensure everything is related to the central message

    • Edit for clarity: Make ideas clear and arrange them logically

    • Edit for concision: Keep the speech short, simple, and clear by eliminating unrelated stories and using simple words

  • Edit for continuity

    • Add transition words and phrases to keep the flow of the presentation smooth.

    • Shift tone and style from formal to conversational and vice-versa to add spice to the speech.

    • Move around the stage or add humor to make the speech more engaging.

    • Use strategies like surprise, vivid descriptive images, well-crafted lines, and figures of speech to make the speech memorable.

    • Rehearse the speech by reading it aloud, recording it for analysis or feedback, and practicing constantly.

Guidelines in Speech Writing

1. Keep words short and simple for better audience comprehension.

2. Avoid jargon, acronyms, and technical words that can confuse the audience.

3. Use personal pronouns like "I" and "we" to make the speech more personal and relatable.

4. Use active verbs and contractions to add a personal and conversational tone.

5. Be sensitive to the audience's language, jokes, and nonverbal cues.

6. Use metaphors and figures of speech to effectively convey the point.

7. Manage time well and ensure the speech falls within the time limit.

Key Takeaways Insights on Public Speaking

• Delivery is essential for effective public speaking.

• Good delivery means presenting the message clearly, coherently, and interestingly.

• Audiences prefer delivery that combines formality with attributes of good conversation.

• Effective public speakers undergo formal training or gain experience over time.

Types of Speeches According to Purpose

1. Informative speech: Provides a clear understanding of a concept or idea.

2. Entertainment speech: Amuses the audience.

3. Persuasive speech: Seeks to influence the audience's decisions.

Types of Speeches According to Delivery

1. Extemporaneous speaking: Delivered conversationally with limited preparation.

2. Impromptu speaking: Spoken without advanced preparation.

3. Manuscript speaking: Reading aloud a written message.

4. Memorized speaking: Reciting a written message word-for-word from memory.

Challenges in Different Speaking Environments

1. Speaking to a specific audience size: Adjust approach based on audience size.

2. Speaking in an open-air venue or outside a building: Deal with communication barriers and make adjustments in voice projection.

3. Speaking in different venues: Make adjustments in nonverbal cues based on venue size and characteristics.

Tips for Dealing with Common Challenges in Speaking Environments

1. Speaking to a specific audience size: Ask organizers for estimated audience number and practice accordingly.

2. Speaking in an open-air venue or outside a building: Check the venue, make adjustments in voice projection, and use the outdoor setting to your advantage.

3. Speaking in different venues: Check the venue in advance, make adjustments in nonverbal cues, and practice accordingly.

Speaking with a microphone

• Description: The main function of a microphone is to increase the volume of your voice, not to clarify pronunciation and enunciation of words.

• Advantages: Using a microphone can easily get the attention of your audience due to the loudness of your voice.

• Disadvantages: There is a tendency to underuse or overuse the microphone, which can be challenging.

• Tips: Check if the microphone functions well, ensure your voice is audible enough, manage your voice's volume well in small venues, and practice regularly.

Speaking with a podium or lectern

• Description: A podium or lectern is a reading desk with a stand and a slanted top.

• Advantages: Notes can be placed on the slanted top, works best for extemporaneous and manuscript speeches, can be used to hide or cover nervousness or stage fright.

• Disadvantages: Some may have the tendency to hide their hands behind the podium, which does not enhance their message.

• Tips: Stand straight with good posture, avoid gripping the edges of the podium with both hands, step to the side occasionally for extemporaneous and impromptu speeches to effectively use gestures, make eye contact, and connect with the audience, and practice regularly.

Tools for Effective Speech Delivery

• Observing others: Watch and emulate people who speak excellently in public, observe how they approach their audience, connect with their audience, and present themselves on stage.

• Practice in front of a mirror or with family, friends, or classmates to receive feedback and seek advice.

• Explore which tools work best for you and develop a habit of effective delivery.

• Keep practicing and engaging in speaking situations to improve public speaking skills.

More Tips for Effective Speech Delivery

• Use a conversational style more often to sound natural and avoid sounding exaggerated.

• Maintain eye contact with the audience to make them feel involved in the speech.

• Adjust volume to the size of the audience and venue.

• Vary rate or speed to keep the audience interested and avoid monotone.

• Master your voice and find your pitch level, modulating it if necessary.

• Use pauses to emphasize important words, phrases, or sentences.

• Pronounce and enunciate words correctly to avoid confusing the audience.

• Avoid fillers or expressions that substitute actual words in your speech.

• Start your speech with good posture and balance.

• Avoid distracting mannerisms and observe your body language.

• Make sure facial expressions reflect the meaning of your speech.

• Dress properly and appropriately.

• Observe ethics in preparation, honesty, politeness, and avoiding offensive words or actions.

• Breathe in and out to relax before the speech and have fun.

Memorized Speech

• Memorizing a speech can help achieve a smooth and effortless delivery.

• Memorize short speeches for special occasions like introductions, acceptance speeches, toasts, eulogies, and tributes.

• Disadvantages: Risk of forgetting, sounding mechanical, looking uptight and stiff, and not being able to respond to audience feedback.

• Advantages: No need for notes, ability to plan gestures and nonverbal communication.

• Memorizing a speech helps you focus on visual aids and props

• Memorizing a speech boosts confidence and reduces anxiety

• Tips for memorizing a speech:

  • Break it down into paragraphs

  • Build it up by reciting paragraphs in sequence

  • Speak out loud while memorizing

  • Identify key points in each paragraph

  • Take breaks to test recall

  • Record and listen to yourself delivering the speech

  • Use note cards for key points

Extemporaneous Speech

• Extemporaneous speech is planned and prepared, delivered with short notes and an outline

• Three steps in studying an extemporaneous topic:

  • Identify the type of question (fact, value, policy)

  • Determine the purpose appropriate to the topic

  • Look at all sides and angles of the problem

• Steps in preparing for a successful extemporaneous speech:

  • Reinforce the thesis throughout the speech

  • State the central idea in one sentence

  • Develop supporting points in an outline

  • Grab attention in the introduction, provide background, state the thesis

  • Check main points for clarity and connection to thesis

  • Provide examples, testimonies, statistics, or cases for each main point

  • Conclude by reinforcing the introduction, connecting with the audience, restating the thesis or reviewing main points

• Sample outline for an extemporaneous speech

Entertainment Speech

• Entertainment speech aims to share goodwill, joy, and pleasure

• To make a speech entertaining, tell jokes, share funny stories, dramatize experiences, recall a scary story

• Steps in writing an entertaining speech:

  • Choose a light topic

  • Enjoy the moment and exude confidence

  • Simplify the flow of the speech

  • Use vivid and descriptive words

  • Surprise the audience with unexpected twists

• Suggested outline for an entertaining speech

Four Types of Informative Speeches

• speech about objects or people

  • This focuses on tangible items like gadgets, products, structures, or people

• speech about processes

  • This focuses on a process or sequence of events. Visual aids are necessary

• speech about events

  • This focuses on an event that happened, is happening, or might happen in the future

• speech about concepts

  • This focuses on beliefs, knowledge, theories, principles or ideas

Organizational Patterns

• An informative speech can follow different patterns of organization

• Chronological Pattern:

  • Used to present the history, evolution, or development of a topic in sequential order

  • Example outline provided

• Sample Speech Outline: Chronological Informative Speech Outline

  • Topic: The 9/11 Attacks

  • Specific Purpose: To inform about one of the greatest tragedies in the 21st century

  • Thesis Statement: The 9/11 attacks were unforeseen and have changed the world forever

  • Introduction, Body, and Conclusion sections outlined with sub-bullets providing details

Spatial Pattern

• Spatial Pattern:

  • Used to talk about the physical structure of an object or the way things fit together in a certain space

  • Example outline provided

• Topic: Speech about a place

• Specific Purpose: To inform tourists about the beauty and mysticism of the Mayon Volcano

• Thesis: Mayon Volcano's beauty and mysticism belies the fact that it is very active and lies along the Pacific Ring of Fire

• Introduction, Body, and Conclusion sections outlined with sub-bullets providing details

Topical/Categorical Pattern

• Topical/Categorical Pattern:

  • Used to inform about the main features, descriptions, or categories of a topic

  • Example outline provided

• Sample Speech Outline: Informative Outline

  • Topic: Theories of Development

  • Specific Purpose: To inform about the different development models

  • Thesis: Development can be defined depending on a theoretical approach

• Introduction, Body, and Conclusion sections outlined with sub-bullets providing details

Cause-Effect Pattern

• Cause-Effect Pattern:

  • Used to show the causal relationship of events or phenomena

  • Different variations of the pattern explained

• Single Cause-Multiple Effects, Single Effect-Multiple Causes, Multiple Causes-Multiple Effects, and Domino Effects patterns described

• Introduction, Body, and Conclusion sections outlined with sub-bullets providing details

Comparison-Contrast Outline Format

• This can be used if you want to compare objects, events, or concepts underscoring their similarities and differences

• Block Format:

  • Introduction

    • Attention getter

    • Thesis Statement/Main Point highlighting the concepts compared

  • Body

    • Object/Event/Concept A

      • Comparison Point A

        • Object/Event/Concept A

      • Comparison Point B

        • Object/Event/Concept B

      • Comparison Point C

    • Object/Event/Concept B

      • Comparison Point A

        • Object/Event/Concept A

      • Comparison Point B

        • Object/Event/Concept B

      • Comparison Point C

  • Conclusion

    • Summary of the Points

    • Memorable Statement

• Point-by-point Format:

  • Introduction

    • Attention getter

    • Thesis Statement/Main Point highlighting the concepts compared

  • Body

    • Object/Event/Concept A

      • Comparison Point A

        • Object/Event/Concept A

      • Comparison Point B

        • Object/Event/Concept B

      • Comparison Point C

    • Object/Event/Concept B

      • Comparison Point A

        • Object/Event/Concept A

      • Comparison Point B

        • Object/Event/Concept B

      • Comparison Point C

  • Conclusion

    • Summary of the Points

    • Memorable Statement

Persuasive speech

• Persuasive speech is a form of communication that aims to influence the thoughts, feelings, actions, and perception of the audience.

• The goal of persuasive speaking is to convince the audience that your argument is important, practical, attainable, or feasible.

• Qualities of an effective persuasive speech:

  • Well-defined goal

  • Clear main point

  • Sufficient supporting ideas

  • Logical reasoning

  • Effective and powerful ways to grab the attention of the audience

  • Compelling ideas to make the target audience feel and think

  • Salient motives to target the important thoughts and needs of the audience

• Types of claims in persuasive speech:

  • Speech that questions fact

  • Speech that questions value

  • Speech that questions policy

• Guide Questions for Qualities of an Effective Persuasive Speech:

  • Well-defined goal: What is your specific goal in mind? Do you expect your audience to think differently, act differently, or both, after they listen to your speech?

  • Clear main point: Is the main point of your speech clear to you? Is it specific and focused?

  • Sufficient supporting ideas: Do you have factual statements, reliable sources, or solid evidence to support your main point? Do you have enough number of supporting statements?

  • Logical reasoning: How will you state your arguments? Will you use deductive, inductive, causal, or analogy reasoning?

  • Effective and powerful ways to gain the attention of your audience: Do you use any of the following techniques - powerful and relevant questions, striking statistics, shocking incidents, memorable anecdotes, humorous observations or experiences?

  • Compelling ideas to make your target audience feel and think: Do you appeal to your listeners' minds? Do you appeal to your listeners' hearts?

  • Salient motives to target the important thoughts and needs of your audience: Do you motivate your audience by incorporating ideas and thoughts important to their growth and development as individuals?

Types of claims in persuasive speech

• Types of claims in persuasive speech:

  • Speech that questions fact: Questions the existence of a particular event or happening.

  • Speech that questions value: Focuses on questions of value regarding topics on the self, family, friendship, religion, government, freedom, love, and money, among others.

  • Speech that questions policy: Questions the current state of things which can impact the future.

• Organizational Patterns for persuasive speech:

  • A.F.O.R.E.S.T. (anecdotes, facts and figures, opinion, rhetorical questions, emotive language, superlatives, tripling)

  • Anecdotes

    • Begin your speech with a personal story, observation, or experience

  • Facts and Figures

    • Provide striking statistics that can support your ideas

  • Opinion

    • Add in your opinion

  • Rhetorical questions

    • Think of and add engaging rhetorical questions

  • Emotive language

    • Appeal to your audience’s emotion

  • Superlatives

    • Use superlatives to exaggerate an idea

  • Tripling

    • The rule of three in the English writing principle simply entails using three words together to reinforce your point

  • Problem-Solution

    • Identify the problem

    • Provide a solution that shows the practicality of your proposal

• Problem-Cause-Solution pattern for addressing the issue

  • Identify the problem

  • Analyze the root causes of the problem

  • Provide a solution to the problem

• Comparative advantages of the proposed solutions

  • Identify the problem

  • Present at least two solutions to the problem

  • Compare the two in terms of practicality and feasibility

• Monroe’s motivated sequence

  • A professor from Purdue University created an outline for making speeches based on the psychology of persuasion

    • 1. Grab the attention of the audience

    • 2. Establish the need or urgency

    • 3.Present possible solutions to your audience to satisfy the need

    • 4.Help your audience visualize

    • 5.Engage the audience to participate in promoting change through a call for action

Persuasion Techniques

• Methods of persuasion according to Lucas (2011)

  • Credibility of the speaker

  • Evidence presented by the speaker

  • Reasoning of the speaker

  • Emotional appeal of the speaker

• Tips on enhancing credibility, using evidence, reasoning, and emotional appeal in a persuasive speech

  • Enhancing credibility through expertise, shared experiences, and practice

  • Using specific and current evidence

  • Choosing reputable sources for evidence

  • Avoiding logical fallacies in reasoning

Using Reasoning in Persuasive Speeches

• Avoiding logical fallacies in reasoning

  • Ad Hominem fallacy

    • This happens when you attack the character of a person instead of his argument

  • Circular Argument fallacy

    • This happens when the idea of a stated argument is repeated

  • False Analogy fallacy

    • This happens when two things, which might be alike in some respects, are compared and assumed to be similar in other ways

  • False Authority fallacy

    • This happens when a statement of someone who is not an expert in the field in question is being used in an argument

False Cause and Effect

• Connection between two consecutive events is not clear

• Example: Attending a party and getting a high grade in a persuasive speech

• How to avoid: Clarify the connections by explaining both backgrounds clearly

Hasty Generalization

• Conclusion drawn from insufficient evidence

• Example: Senator stuttering during a speech and concluding that government officials are not good at public speaking

• How to avoid: Provide enough evidence before making conclusions

Red Herring

• Answer does not address the question

• Example: President avoiding the question of signing a Cyberbullying bill into law by mentioning other priorities

• How to avoid: Address opposing arguments properly, do not avoid them

How to use emotional appeal

• Internalize what you are saying

  • Audience is more convinced if you show conviction

  • Example: Using emotionally charged words with a monotonous voice lacks sincerity

• Use emotion appropriately

  • Emotional appeal is a strong weapon, but use it only when appropriate

  • Use it as an accessory, not a replacement for evidence and reasoning

  • Example: Emotional appeal is unnecessary when dealing with facts, but can be used to capture the hearts of the audience