Self and Other: Key Vocabulary

Self and Other

Getting to Know Me, Getting to Know You

• The sense of self changes with age, illustrated by children's responses to the question "What are you like as a person?"

The Sense of Self

• Sense of self: Awareness of self as differentiated from others, crucial for children's development.

• Three areas of development:

  • Understanding the self.
  • Understanding others.
  • Communicating with others.
  • These have major implications for social adjustment and navigating the social world.

• Individual self: Aspects that make a person unique (e.g., hardworking, physically fit, confident).

• Relational self: Aspects involving connections to others and developing out of social interactions (Chen et al., 2011).

  • Internal working model of attachment is an example: conception of self as a social partner.

• Collective self: Person's concept of self within a group (e.g., race, ethnicity, gender) (Sedikides et al., 2013).

  • Example: African American student's collective self in a discussion about race.

• Online self: A recent form of self-representation in Internet forums and multiplayer games.

  • Participants assume online identities that may or may not map onto their real-life selves.
  • Acts as a means of impression management or trying out new identities (Greenfield, 2019; Greenfield, Gross, et al., 2006).

• Genomic self: An individualized profile of your genomic self, which contains information about your biological and psychological traits.

Developmental Origins of Self-Concept

• Research has focused on children's awareness of their individual selves, which has its roots in early infancy.

• Babies gaze at their reflections but don't realize they are looking at themselves.

• Self-recognition study:

  • Researchers show children their reflections and put a red spot on their nose or a sticker on their forehead.
  • If children know they are looking at their own reflection, they will touch their face.
  • Children under 1 year act as if another child is behind the mirror.
  • During the second year of life, children begin to recognize their own image.
  • By age 2, almost all children show self-recognition.

• Self-recognition is restricted to the here and now at this age.

  • 2- and 3-year-olds do not demonstrate self-recognition when there is a delay between putting a sticker on their face and showing them a videotape when compared to real time (Miyazaki & Hiraki, 2006; Povinelli et al., 1996).
  • Children have trouble representing and remembering past self-images until they are about 4 years old.

• Children's views and descriptions of themselves become more detailed, specific, and psychological as they grow up.

  • Susan Harter identified three stages in the development of self-descriptions in childhood and another three in adolescence.

• Ages 3-4: Describe themselves in terms of observable physical features, preferences, possessions, and social characteristics.

  • Particular skills are touted, but self-assessments are often inaccurate.
  • Disjointed lack of coherence in self-descriptions because children cannot integrate their compartmentalized representations.

• Ages 5-7: Describe themselves in terms of their competencies.

  • Beginning to coordinate compartmentalized concepts, but not opposites.
  • Still very positive in their self-descriptions and overestimate their abilities.

• Ages 8-10: More aware of their private selves and their unique feelings and thoughts, and they begin to describe themselves in more complex terms.

  • Use labels that focus on abilities and interpersonal attributes.
  • Integrate success in different areas.
  • Self-constructs become increasingly aligned with the values, roles, and preferences of their cultural community.

• Early Adolescence (Age 11+): Describe themselves in terms of social relationships, personality traits, and other general, stable psychological characteristics.

  • Focus on interpersonal attributes and social skills, competencies, and emotions.
  • Recognize that they have different selves in different social contexts.
  • Begin to describe themselves in abstract terms, but their abstractions are still compartmentalized.

• Middle Adolescence: Introspective and preoccupied with what others think of them.

  • Formerly unquestioned self-truths become problematic self-hypotheses.
  • Multiple "me's" crowd the self-landscape as the adolescent acquires new roles.
  • The growing ability to think in the abstract allows the adolescent to create a more integrated view of the self.
  • Have trouble integrating self-representations to resolve apparent contradictions.
  • Don't understand how they can be different in different roles and experience conflict over opposing self-attributes.

• Late Adolescence: Self-descriptions emphasize personal beliefs, values, and moral standards.

  • Adolescents think about future and possible selves.
  • Integrate potentially contradictory attributes and develop a coherent theory of the self.
  • The older adolescent can reconceptualize opposing notions as "moody," thus resolving apparent contradictions in his or her sense of self (Harter, 2012, 2016).

Cultural Context: How Culture Shapes Self-Representations

• Westerners and Europeans emphasize an autonomous self that can be described in terms of unique personal traits.

• Asians emphasize an interdependent self that can be described in terms of social roles and responsibilities in a network of relationships.

• European American children’s descriptions were more 'personal' - referring to personal attributes ("I'm cute"), preferences ("I love playing piano"), possessions ("I have a teddy bear"), and behaviors unrelated to other people ("I'm happy").

• Chinese children's descriptions were more "social" - referring to group memberships (''I'm a girl"), and interpersonal relations ("I love my mommy," "My cousins and I do lots of things together").

• Western cultures encourage children to embrace positive self-views; Asian cultures value self-criticism and humility because they facilitate group solidarity and harmony.

• European American children were more likely to describe themselves in positive terms ("I am beautiful," "I am smart"), whereas Chinese children used nonevaluative descriptors ("I play games," "I go to school").

• American mothers focused attention on the child and what the child had accomplished, acknowledged the child's expressions of individuality, and socialized the child to remember personal experiences highlighting individual uniqueness and autonomy.

• Chinese mothers focused on group actions with the mother playing a leading role and posing pointed questions. They used the story telling opportunity to remind the child of his or her place in the social hierarchy and the need to follow the rules to maintain social connectedness and harmony. There was little discussion of the child’s individual or unique qualities.

• Sharing family memories is one way children learn how to think about their present and past selves in a way that fits their culture.

Difficulty Developing a Sense of Self: Autistic Children

• Autism affects children's ability to develop a sense of self.
• Some children with autism seem not to recognize themselves as independent social beings (Dawson et al., 1998).
• They exhibit delays or deficits in self-recognition.
  • When researchers showed autistic children their reflections in a mirror, 31 percent failed to demonstrate recognition of their mirror image, compared to neurotypical children (Spiker & Ricks, 1984).
• Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show delays in self-recognition (Nielsen et al., 2006).
• Even when autistic children do recognize themselves in the mirror, they demonstrate little emotional response.
• Autistic children are less proficient in understanding emotions compared to typically developing children (Harms et al., 2010; Rump et al., 2009).
• These difficulties are thought to arise due to dysfunctional mirror neuron systems, which account for their difficulty processing emotions (Burrows et al., 2016; Dapretto et al., 2006).
• Researchers have found that autistic children show similar neurological responses to their own face, a familiar face, and an unfamiliar face, indicating that they do not distinguish between self and other, while neurotypical children do (Gunji et al., 2009).

Global Self-Esteem

• Self-esteem addresses how positively or negatively children view themselves in relation to others.

• Self-esteem is a global evaluation of one's worth as a person (Harter, 2012, 2016).

• High self-esteem: view themselves as competent and capable and are pleased with who they are, whereas children who have low self-esteem view themselves as inadequate and inferior to others (Harter, 2012, 2016).

• Individuals with high self-esteem also are happier than those with low self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 2003).

• High self-esteem in childhood is linked to school success, good relationships with parents and peers, and lack of anxiety and depression (Harter, 2012).

• High self-esteem prospectively predicts success and well-being in adult domains such as relationships, work, and health (Orth & Robins, 2014).

• However, the direction of cause and effect in these links is not always clear.

  • Good performance is as likely to lead to high self-esteem as the reverse, and when variables such as the child's competence are controlled, links between self-esteem and positive social outcomes tend to be reduced (Baumeister et al., 2003).

• Self-esteem can have a dark side, too.

  • High self-esteem does not protect against risky behaviors.
  • High self-esteem can also be related to prejudice and antisocial behavior.
  • Aggressive adolescents with high self-esteem were more likely than those with low self-esteem to justify their antisocial behavior and belittling of victims (Menon et al., 2007).

• Boosting children's self-esteem does not lead to better social outcomes (Baumeister et al., 2003).

Domain-Specific Perceptions

• Children develop domain-specific self-perceptions in areas such as scholastics, athletics, and appearance.
• Harter (1982, 2012) developed a measure for assessing both global self-esteem and specific self-perceptions.
• Children rate themselves on global self-worth and in five domains: scholastic ability, athletic competence, physical appearance, behavioral conduct, and social acceptance.
• Meaningful distinctions exist between global self-esteem and self-perceptions in specific areas.

Learning Self-Appraisal

• In early childhood, self-appraisals are not very accurate or realistic.
  • Most children rate themselves positively, which may reflect what they "want to be" rather than who they are.
• Children's self-assessments moderately relate well to teachers' assessments, suggesting some reality to their views.
• With development, children become more realistic in their self-appraisals.
• Children who are rejected by their peers accept this judgment and view themselves as low in social competence (Rubin et al., 2015).
• Children distinguish among different kinds of competence and attach more importance to the domains they excel in.
• How children evaluate themselves in different domains affects their overall sense of self-esteem, depending on the importance they place on each domain.
• A reciprocal relation develops between children's self-perceptions in a domain and the interest, motivation, and effort they devote to activities in that domain (Harter, 2012, 2016; Marsh et al., 2007; Valentine et al., 2004).

Gender Variations in Global Self-Esteem

• Girls have lower global self-esteem than boys beginning in middle childhood, especially in adolescence (Mellanby et al., 2000; Van Boutte, 2005).
• This gender gap has not changed over the past 30 years (Bleidorn et al., 2016).
• Possible explanations:
  • Boys are more dominant and assertive than girls especially in mixed gender groups, contributing to greater influence.
  • Traits more common among men are positively correlated with self-esteem for both men and women, whereas this is weaker and less consistent for traits more common among women (Gebauer et al., 2013).
  • Opportunities to participate in athletics favor boys.
  • Girls don't elect athletics as much as boys do and some see it as a threat to their femininity.
  • Self-esteem is higher for those who participate in sports regardless of gender.
  • Girls in England, Australia, Ireland, Switzerland, Italy, Holland, China, and South Korea also see themselves as less competent than boys in athletics (Gillen & Markey, 2014; Harter, 2012).
  • Links exist between ratings of appearance, and overall self-esteem for both genders.
  • Portrayals of impossible ideals in popular media.

Social Determinants of Self-Esteem

• Stanley Coopersmith (1967) found that accepting, affectionate, and involved parents who set clear rules, used noncoercive disciplinary tactics, and considered the child's views had children with higher self-esteem.

• Adolescent girls whose mothers were more affectionate had higher self-esteem. Adolescent boys whose mothers were more psychologically controlling, intrusive, and manipulative had lower self-esteem (Ojanen & Perry, 2007).

• Authoritative parents had adolescents with higher self-esteem compared to controlling/punitive parents (Lamborn et al., 1991).

• Adolescents of supportive fathers reported higher self-esteem (Behnke et al., 2011).

• Children with abusive parents have lower self-esteem than those with nonabusive parents (Cicchetti & Toth, 2015).

• Parents' approval seems particularly important for fostering self-perceptions in the domains of scholastic competence and good conduct (Harter, 2012).

• Peers are important for promoting adolescents' self-perceptions in appearance, popularity, and athletic competence.

• Support from peers in public domains is more important than support from close friends.

• Being accepted by peers is important for maintaining a positive global self-esteem during adolescence (Litwack et al., 2012).

• Even feedback from anonymous peer strangers can affect children's self-esteem (Thomaes et al., 2010).

• Mentors such as coaches, teachers, and family friends are also influential sources of support for self-esteem (Reddy et al., 2003; Rhodes & Frederikson, 2004).

• Big Brothers Big Sisters programs have a positive influence on children's self-esteem (Rhodes et al., 2000).

  • These programs increase children’s scholastic confidence and improve their relationships with their parents.

• Praising talent and intelligence doesn't help children achieve success and sets them up for disappointment (Dweck, 2008).

• It is better to foster in children a "growth mindset" that they can develop their abilities through effort.

• Parents should focus on children's efforts and how they tackle tasks, praise strategies and progress, and praise socially desirable behaviors and self-improvement rather than abilities.

• Stepping out of the way and letting children solve problems on their own will also help them build true self-esteem (Dweck, 2008; Young-Eisendrath, 2008).

Identity Formation

• Forming a sense of identity involves defining oneself as a discrete, separate entity and addressing the questions "Who am I?" and "What will I become?"

• This process is a major challenge in adolescence (Crocetti, 2017).

• Erik Erikson's fifth developmental stage focused on the search for a stable self-identity.

• Failure to achieve a stable identity results in identity confusion.

• James Marcia (1966, 1993) described a period during which adolescents experience a crisis of decision making when alternative identities are explored.

• Four types of identity outcomes are possible:

  • Identity Achievement: Person has gone through exploration of different identities and made a commitment to one. Highest level of identity. Associated with several positive outcomes, including flexible moral reasoning, clear goal setting, and better academic achievement.

  • Identity Foreclosure: Person has made a commitment without attempting identity exploration. Remain committed to their childhood values and beliefs and do not use adolescence as a period to explore other potential identities.

  • Identity Moratorium: Person is actively involved in exploring different identities but has not made a commitment. Fail to reach any resolution about who they are and what they believe and value.

  • Identity Diffusion: Person has experienced neither identity crisis nor identity commitment. Neither engage in exploration nor are concerned about committing themselves to a particular identity; they take life as it happens. Least mature identity state.

• Individuals can shift from one to another even over the course of adolescence.

• Identity formation is not over in adolescence, and identity change may be more prevalent in young adulthood (Roberts et al., 2006).

• Many young adults continue to struggle with identity issues.

• Elisabetta Crocetti (2017), identity formation is best understood by three processes:
  *Commitment: enduring choices individuals have made regarding various developmental domains.
  *In-depth exploration: reflecting on their choices, searching for additional information, talking to others about their commitments.
  *Reconsideration of commitment: Comparing present commitments with possible alternative commitments.

• Factors influence adolescents' identity development: parents, peers, and biological/cognitive changes.

  • An awareness of self as a sexual being emerges and stimulates exploration of sexual identity and sexual relationships.
  • Advances in cognitive development during adolescence permit more abstract reasoning, which, allows adolescents to think more deeply about themselves.

Into Adulthood: Identity Formation Continues

Emerging adulthood is a key period with unprecedented freedom to explore identity options, but also anxiety and uncertainty (Arnett, 2014).

College students are more likely to have achieved an identity if their parents are supportive, respect their wishes and needs, and avoid intrusive strategies (Luyckx et al., 2007).

Different identity patterns found:

Young adults from disadvantaged families are likely to develop a “pseudo-adult” identity.
Young adults from Asian American families had delayed autonomy and were likely to develop a late adult identity.
Young adults from African American families developed an early adult identity.
Young women who had distant and conflict-ridden relations with their parents had delayed development of psychosocial skills and accelerated adoption of adult roles and identity

In a longitudinal study, development along a sequence from identity diffusion to identity achievement was related to having a prolonged education, making a later transition to adult working life, and starting a family “on time” - not too early, not too late

Identity trajectories fluctuate
Greatest change during the period from early to middle adult-hood, when the likelihood of having an achieved identity increased, and the likelihood of having identity diffusion decreased.
Having an achieved identity was associated with being more intelligent, experiencing success in work, having positive marital and family relationships, and participating in community and political activities.
Adults with a foreclosed identity were likely to have strong positive relationships with their parents and relatives, participate in lodge activities, and become more politically conservative.
Adults experiencing identity moratorium were likely to have weak relationships with their parents, participate in community and political activities, and become more liberal

Ethnic Identity

• Ethnic identity refers to the sense of belonging to a certain race or ethnic group.

• Ethnic identity emerges gradually over childhood and adolescence.

• Even in infancy, 3-month-old babies look longer at faces of their own race than faces of other races (Kelly et al., 2005).

• By 9 months, they associate positive emotions with same race faces while linking negative emotions with faces of other races (Xiao et al., 2017).

• Preschoolers have been shown to have implicit racial biases (Banaji & Greenwald, 2006, 2013; Qian et al., 2016).

• Children become aware of cues to race and ethnicity such as skin color and prefer to play with children from their own group (Rubin et al., 2015).

• Minority-group children reach this awareness and preference earlier than children from the majority group (Milner, 1983).

• As children develop cognitively, they begin to recognize which behaviors are part of the majority culture and which are unique to their own ethnic group.

• They can label themselves as part of a racial/ ethnic group (Brown & Bigler, 2005).

• Positive feelings and preferences for ethnic-group activities also begin to develop during this period (Xiao et al., 2015).

• They recognize that ancestry, pride, and heritage are aspects of ethnicity.

• Elementary school children also understand ethnic group constancy.

  • They recognize that their ethnicity is not changeable but remains one of their permanent characteristics (Quintana, 2011). They become aware that identity does not change over time or context (Ocampo et al., 1997).

• The active period of ethnic-identity development is adolescence.

• Adolescents recognize that discrimination, bias in group attitudes, and prejudice are part of racial/ ethnic identity as well (Ulma-Taylor et al., 2014).

• Minority students achieved varying levels of ethnic identity:

  • Achieved a clear ethnic identity
  • Foreclosed identity
  • Unexamined or diffuse ethnic identity
  • Moratorium state

• A clear, positive ethnic identity is related to high self-esteem, more optimism, and more social competence, as well as more positive feelings toward the ethnic group (Chavous et al., 2003; Rivas-Drake et al., 2014).

• If they identify too strongly with the dominant culture, they are often criticized and ostracized by their ethnic group peers for being "too white."

• Minority students benefit from embracing their ethnicity and forming a positive ethnic identity without disparaging the majority culture (Rivas-Drake et al., 2014).

• They are less likely to become delinquents, do better in school, experience less depression, and have more positive attitudes toward other ethnic groups.

Biracial and Bicultural Children and Youth

• They face unique challenges in forging an ethnic identity.
• Many individuals of mixed race choose a multiracial identity which recognizes their mixed heritake. A positive multiracial identity is linked to good psychological health
• Can they develop a bicultural identity, adopting both the norms and attitudes of the majority or new culture and the valued and cherished traditions from the minority culture, leading to greater satisfaction with sense of self?(Phinney & Rosenthal, 1992, p. 160)

Identities that can be formed:

• Bicultural: belongs to both European American majority and Mexican American minority.
• Mexican: identifies solely with the Mexican ethnic group.
• European American: identifies solely with the majority culture.
• Marginal: not strongly identified with either majority or minority.They are likely to have social and psychological problems.
  *According to a meta-analysis, in today's multiethnic world, adolescents with a bicultural identity have the best physical and psychological health (Nugent & Benet-Martinez, 2013). Their ability to operate in two social worlds helps them develop interpersonal skills and high self-esteem (Buriel et al., 2006).

Parents play a major role in the development of children's ethnic identity by imparting knowledge about cultural traditions, instilling pride in their ethnic heritage, and preparing children for the hardships that can accompany minority status (Seaton et al 2012, Umana-Taylor et al 2013).

In high school, most students hang out with members of their own ethnic group/ They tend not to know classmates in other ethnic groups well (Steinberg et al 1992)

Broader cultural forces and events contribute to children's and adolescents' ethnic identity development.

Religious Identity

• Religious identity for many children and adolescents (King & Boyatzis, 2015) is a key piece of identity.
• Religious identity was relatively stable during these years, but can shift during transition points.
• Girls report stronger religious identities than boys (Lopez et al.,2011, Mattis et al, 2005 Taylor, 2004).
• Latino and Asian adolescents reported stronger religious identities than European American adolescents because feel discriminated against.
• Changes in religious identity were related to changes in ethnic identity (Lopez et al.,2011).
• Religious identity is related to psychological well-being. strong religious identity have better emotional and behavioral self-regulation, are less likely to engage in antisocial activity, report fewer psychological problems, and are more likely to be employed in adulthood.
• Variety of individuals influence the development of young people's religious identity, including parents, peers, and religious figures

Sexual Orientation and Identity

• L.G.B.T.Q.I.A. 88.8% of student identified as heterosexual, 2% as gay or lesbian, 6% as bisexual (Kann et al., 2016)
• Recognizing preference tends to be gradual (Diamond & Alley, 2017).
• Some doubt heterosexuality (Carver et al) and show diminished participation in gender linked activities.
• Questioning, test & exploration
• Identity acceptance (Savin-Williams, 2016)
• Identity integration
• The core question for this generation is “who they themselves are.”
  It is increasingly acceptable at age 20, even with only 39% saying there were fathers (Taylor, 2013, Savin-Williams & Ream; 2003).
  20-40% may experience discrimination (D’ Augelli, 2006)

Early Understanding of Intentions and Norms

• By the time they are 1 year old, infants understand that people 's actions are intentional and goal directed (Brandone, 2015; Thompson, 2015) .
• After the first year, infants create joint-attentional states with adults by looking at the same object or using their own actions of pointing and reaching to bring the adult's attention to the object (Tomasello, 2014; Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003).
• By 18 months they recognize simple social norms (Lewis, 2008a).
• By end 2nd year they can describe norms (Nelson, 1993, 2007).
• Knowledge is foundation for wide social understanding, predictability, smooth interactions development of long-term memory/life events.

Later Understanding of Mental States: Theory of Mind

• Children come to understand other people's mental states- thoughts, beliefs, and desires-and how they affect behavior (Birch et al., 2017; Harris, 2006, 2012).
• Also known as the "false belief study" researchers present a story in hopes of finding correlation between understanding of character belief vs. reality (Wellman, 2017; Wimmer & Perner, 1983).
• At 4-5 years recognize that Maxi's actions will be based on his thought, not fact.
• At 3, ignore the action and say that Maxi will look for the candy where it is really placed.
  Researchers have used event- related brain potential (ERP) studies and brain-imaging techniques such as fMRI to investigate the neurological basis of theory of mind (Savvagh et al., 2009).

Research also shows infants make sense of actions that require understanding.

• Children with autism have deficits and delays because they cannot connect behavior and mental state (Lillard, 2006 Baron-Cohen,
• Inability account for poor communication with others, competence (Carpendale, Lewis, 2006 Lagattua, Tomasello).

Understanding Psychological Trait Labels

In preschool children describe others in physical form same as themselves.

When they are 4 years old, infer event in trait.

When they are 5-7, personality (Gelman, Heyman).
When they are 9-10, more use traits (Alvarez, Flavell).
Over middle period realize difference, which causes skepticism.
Then fully understand them (Flavell, Harter, Heyman)
“Demographer behaviorist during early stages (Flavell).”.

Perspective Taking

Perspective taking is the capacity to understand another person's point of view (Birch et al., 2017).
The capacity to select the proper gift for someone (Atance)
Five stages (Robert Selman):

Stage 0: Egocentric.
Stage 1: Separate view.
Stage 2: Considering thoughts feelings.
Stage 3: viewpoints seen as “3rd”.
Stage 4: Societal/in depth is how children view

Advancing Social Understanding

Several things that children abilities, families parents sibling friendships and culture assist with understanding social situations.
Some researchers show families and those who discuss become better at theory of mind (Ensor Taumoepeau,
Social tendencies are embedded in children and intellectual abilities
Parential influences, play strong role
Conversations contribute
Experiences are more limited in home, where only have self help concerns (Brown, Perner)
Experiences external like cultural brokering, higher points of theary of mind(Eksner & Orellana)

And through perspectives teaching skill
Some children adapt as influenced from their (Wellman) world, traits.
U S: help while Indian views in context and obligations (Miller)
Chinese people are more modest.
Universal but culture still sets it

Stereotyping and Prejudice

In societies that reflect many cultures, people recognize different languages, colors, values, etc.Two key factors children must address:

Social categories (label Individuals in the other groups); and
Prejudice. Whether negative attitude towards those individuals.
Stereotype - labels (Killen, Mulvey) with recognition individuals are not different from each other/or unique.
Stereotyping 3 to 9 years (Davis), consciousness is seen as early
Prejudice often think because stereotypes then act bad. They are all viewed same way (Aboud).
As more understanding groups the explicit becomes less and (Aboud, Powlishta.
lAT tests show implicit prejudice ( Banaji & Greenwald.2013).
Determinants of prejudice
Grows with (Cunningham) feeling of.fear because bad and (Hischfeld) adaptive in the end
More from social perspective: the factors. Parents
Adult messages media

Rebecca conducted, found (Bigler & Liben) groups and school settings would effect prejudice
Some actions such as common grounds can be taken (Pettigrew & Tropp to ensure people bond
Reduce competiveness(Abrams) to create bonds (Sherif) and point others(Aboud) to traits outside culture helps

Insight into Extremes: The MOST Extreme

If large differences exist between groups, the majority group may consider the minority to be less than human (Chalk & Jonassohn, 1990).
Genocide results from it (Chalk)
Examples: Holocaust, Rwanda, and Darfur.
Holocaust
Rwanda
Dafur
Islamic State
They can and (Obama) reduce this

Communication Between Me and You: The Role of Language

A child’s communication to teachers and parents, assist
aspect of cognitive, for developing is the process of the
social. Speech being how one says
Steps Toward Language Fluency
Preverbal (what baby expresses)
Babbling or noises.
Semantic Language comes from using all together and in various ways
The Acquisition
When sentences (Hoff
Semantic, a few, but grammar later in 2 years time (Cleave) and all (Thompson) fundamental grammar by age of 5
Learning The Social Uses of language includes understanding many of the unspoken language, like pragmatics
rules (Hoff is essential), how language adjust to audience (Syrett).
With children have difficultly understanding because (Ellis) not all times does that communication go clear. Often they are aware, until help