Decolonization
decolonization: the process of ending colonial rule and the establishment of new governments; the independence of nations after ww2 that were once ruled by European powers
there was increasing European economic influence in south Asia
at first, the Mughal Dynasty limited European influence
by the 1800s, however, the Mughal Empire was weakening
dozens of small states, each headed by a ruler or maharajah, broke away from Mughal control
as a result, the British East India Company gained greater influence in many parts of India
1857 - 1858: British Expand Control Over South Asia
the British East India company ruled India with little interference from the British gov
the company had its own army, led by British officers and staffed by sepoys
sepoys: indian soldiers
in 1857, information spread among the sepoys that the cartridges of their new British rifles were greased with beef and pork fat
both hindus, who consider the cow sacred, and muslims, who do not eat pork, were outraged by the news
sepoy rebellion: some sepoys refused to accept the cartridges and were jailed by the British
as a result, the sepoys captured the city of Delhi
the sepoy rebellion was a turning point in indian history
as a result of the rebellion, in 1858, the British government took direct command of india as a colony
the british also increased their “divide and rule” policy to emphasize differences between groups in order to keep control
1850 - 1911: Britain’s Relations with India
the industrial revolution had turned Britain into the world’s workshop
india was a major supplier of raw materials for that workshop
the British considered India the brightest “jewel in the crown” as the most valuable of all of Britain’s colonies
the British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy from operating on its own
british policies called for india to produce raw materials for British manufacturing and to buy British goods
indian competition with british goods were prohibited
for example, india had previously produced popular handloom textiles, but this industry was put out of business by imported British textiles
india became valuable to british after they established a railroad network there
railroads transported raw products from the interior to the ports and manufactured goods back again
most of the raw materials were agricultural products produced on plantations
plantation crops included tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, and opium
the british shipped opium to China and exchanged it for tea, which they then sold in England
cotton production in india increased when the civil war in the US cut off supplies of cotton for british textile mills
the emphasis on cash crops, production of crops to be sold, instead of used by the people farming, resulted in a loss of self-sufficiency for many villagers
it also caused famine and reduced food production
britain had the world’s third longest railroad network
it allowed for further british control over the economy and brought unity to the connected regions
there was also modern road networks, telephone, telegraph lines, dams, bridges, and irrigation canals that modernized india
in 1885, the indian national congress and 1906 the muslim league
these nationalists called for self-government and were inflamed by the partition of Bengal
the partition of Bengal: the british divided it into a hindu section and a muslim section
in 1911, the british took back the order and divided the province in a different way
1906 - 1942: The Indian Subcontinent Achieves Freedom
after the world struggle against dictatorship, many leaders argued that no country should control another nation
meanwhile, the people of colonized nations continued to press even harder for their freedom
indian resistance to britain, intensified in 1939, when britain attacked indian forced without first consulting the colony’s elected representatives
the indian leader, Mohandas Ghandi, made a nonviolent campaign of noncooperation with the british
in 1942, the british tried to gain the support of the nationalists by promising governmental changes, however this did not include indian independence
india had two main religions: hindu and muslim
the third religion was called sikh
the indian national congress, Congress Party, was india’s national political party
most members of this party were hindu, but still had many muslim members
in competition was the Muslim League, and organization founded in 1906 in india to protect muslim interests
leader of this party was Muhammad Ali Jinnah
he insisted that all muslims resign from the independence if it meant rule by the hindu-dominated congress party
after ww2, britain faced war debts and couldn’t afford the expense of maintaining and governing distant colonies like india
1910 - 1986: South Africa under Apartheid
racial conflict was the result of colonial rule
a small white majority ruled a large black majority
in 1910, South Africa gained self-rule as a dominion of the british empire
in 1912, black south Africans formed the African National Congress (ANC) to fight for their rights, they organized boycotts and strikes
one of these leaders was Nelson Mandela
in 1931, it became an independent member of the british commonwealth
the constitution gave whites power and denied the black majority its rights
in 1948, the National Party came to power in South Africa
this party promoted Afrikaner, or Dutch South African, nationalism
it also instituted a policy of apartheid, complete separation of the races and banned social contacts between whites and blacks
established segregated schools, hospitals, and neighborhoods
in 1959, the minority government set up reserves, called homelands
blacks were forbidden to live in white areas
although blacks made up about 75% of the population, the government set aside only 13% of the land for them
in 1976, riots over school policies broke out in the black town of Soweto
in 1977, police beat popular protest leader, Stephen Biko, to death while he was in custody
in 1986, the government declared a nationwide state of emergency
1914 - 1919: World War I’s Impact on India and Britain
britain brought india into the fight
large number of indian troops served overseas
in exchange, the british government declared that it would gradually increase indian participation in the british raj
british raj - british rule over the indian subcontinent
the british government of india enacted a series of repressive emergency powers and they passed the Rowlatt Acts in early 1919
this extended the repressive wartime measures
it stated that political cases could be tried without juries and that people suspected of acting against the government could be jailed without a trial
1915: Gandhi Returned to India
after Gandhi’s time in South Africa, he returned to india in 1915
gandhi’s first major protests targeted british landlords who forced indian farmers to grow a cash crop called indigo and to sell it at a low price instead of more in-demand crops that they wanted to grow and could make more money with
he also led protests against the british taxation of a region suffering from the effects of floods and famine
1918 - 1962: Rwanda Timeline
1918: the Treaty of Versailles, Rwanda-Urundi is made a League of Nations to be governed by Belgium
the 2 territories are ruled by two different Tutsi monarchs
the minority Tutsi are favored over the Hutu majority
the Belgians used the Tutsi minority to enforce their rule
1926: Belgians introduce a system of ethnic identity cards differentiating Hutus from Tutsis
the Belgians believed that the Tutsis in Rwanda were racially superior to the Hutus because they had more European features
the Belgians only allowed Tutsis to be educated and participate in the government
1957: PARMEHUTU (party for the emancipation of the Hutus) is formed while Rwanda is still under Belgian rule
1959: Hutus rebel against the Belgian colonial power and the Tutsi elite
1961-1962: Belgians withdraw and Rwanda and Burundi become two separate and independent nations
a hutu revolution in Rwanda instills a new president, Gregoire Kayibanda
1919: Amritsar Massacre
also called Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, happened in Amritsar, India in April of 1919
in Amritsar, news that prominent Indian leaders had been arrested sparked violent protests
a force of several dozen troops was given the task of restoring order; among the measures taken was a ban on public gatherings
a crowd of at least 10,000 men, women, and children gathered in an open space known as the Jallianwala Bagh, which was nearly completely enclosed by walls and had only one exit
many had come to the city from the surrounding region to celebrate Baisakhi, a spring festival
without warning, British troops opened fire on the crowd, reportedly shooting hundreds of rounds
1921: Gandhi is Given Leadership in the Indian National Congress
Gandhi was given leadership of the Indian National Congress
he reorganized the group with the goal of Swaraj (self-rule) through the use of nonviolent forms of protest
Gandhi argued that India needed to be self-sufficient and so they would not have to not rely on the British
one way of doing this, he claimed, was for Indians to make their own clothes.
the push for Indians to give up buying British textiles and to make their own clothes was called the Homespun Movement
1930: The Salt March
salt was being heavily taxed by british rulers and indians were jailed just by making or selling salt
in march, gandhi set out on a 240-mile trek to the sea to gather salt
for 23 days, they marched and eventually reached over two miles
soon, people all over india were making their own salt
the authorities responded by imprisoning over 60k indians for this illegal activity, including gandhi
1930 - 1960: Nigeria
after the 1930s, political activities in Nigeria focused on ways to end british rule
European intrusion promoted misogynistic ideologies and deprived women of their political and religious power that they held
the “Women’s War” was when thousands of Igbo women organized a revolt against the policies imposed by british gov in southeastern Nigeria
Nigeria got independence in 1960
in the North are Hausa-Fulani, who are mostly muslim
in the south are the Yoruba and the Igbo, who are mostly Christians, Muslims, or animists
the Igbo, a farming people, live to the east
the Yoruba, farming people with a tradition of kings, live to the west
the Nigerians set up 3 states, one for each region and ethnic group, with a political party in each
1935 - 1937: Government Act and Elections
The Government of India Act of 1935 was a new plan for ruling india that involved more indian participation in the government and free elections to select representatives from each province
in 1937, the first elections took place
the indian national congress candidates won a majority of the provinces, while the muslim league did poorly in the elections
1940: Lahore Resolution
in 1940, the muslim league, led by Jinnah, wrote the Lahore Resolution
this was a statement that demanded that india be separated into two states: one for hindus and one for muslims
politicians like Jinnah feared that the Indian National Congress, which was dominated by hindus, would not negotiate for the best interests of the muslim population
1942 - 1946: The Quit India Movement, and Indian National Army
in 1942, Gandhi and the Indian National Congress launched the Quit India Movement
this demanded immediate independence for india
in a speech called “Do or Die” given in 1942, Gandhi urged the masses to act as an independent nation and to not follow the orders of the british
large scale protests were held all over the country, and the british responded with mass detentions and arrests
other groups of indians started to rebel against the british, such as a 1946 sailors in the Royal Indian Navy
they revolted against the British and refused to work, carried on violent protests, and took over ships
1946 - 1948: Partition and Bloodshed
in august 1946, muslims and hindus were clashing in Calcutta
partition - division of india into separate hindu and muslim nations
originally proposed by india’s muslims
the northwest and eastern regions of india became pakistan
this is where most muslims lived
in july 1947, the British House of Commons passed an act that granted india and pakistan independence in one month’s time
during this short period, everyone fought for a government position and the whole civil service was divided down
hindus, muslims, and sikhs had to decide where to go (either india or pakistan)
violence erupted between these religions
muslims killed sikhs who were moving into india
hindus and sikhs were killing muslims who were headed into pakistan
Ghandi went to the indian capital of Delhi to plead for fair treatment of muslim refugees, but was killed in 1948
1947: The Partition of India
partition of India: divide the colony into two separate and independent nations, india and pakistan
pakistan gained independence in august of 1947 and was led by Jinnah
india gained independence in august 1947 and was led by prime minister Nehru
Gandhi was assassinated by a hindu extremist who felt that Gandhi had betrayed the hindu cause
1947 - 1949: The Battle For Kashmir
muslims and hindus fought over the small region of Kashmir
Kashmir lay at the northern point of india next to pakistan
Kashmir had a majority of muslim population
the fighting continued until the UN arranged a cease-fire in 1949
the cease-fire left a third of Kashmir under pakistani control and the rest under indian control
1947 - 1966: Ghana and Britain Relations
the british colony of the Gold Coast became the first African colony south of the Sahara to achieve independence
the leader of Ghana’s nonviolent movement was Kwame Nkrumah
in 1947, he worked to liberate the Cold Coast from the british and organized boycotts and strikes
when the Gold Coast gained independence in 1957, it took the name Ghana
Kwame became Ghana’s first prime minister and president for life
his programs for industrialization, health, and education showed good intentions but they were very expensive and strengthened opposition
he was often criticized for neglecting economic problems in his own country and spending too much time on Pan-African efforts
in 1966, while Nkrumah was in China, the army and police in Ghana seized power
1948 - 1962: Nelson Mandela Arrested
in 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment
Mandela spent 27 years in prison in Robben Island for his involvement in underground armed resistance activities
1952 - 1986: Pass Laws in South Africa
pass laws were designed to control the movement of Africans under apartheid
in the 19th century, the new pass laws were enacted for the purpose of ensuring a reliable supply of cheap African labor for the gold and diamond mines
in 1952, the government enacted an even more rigid law that required all African males over the age of 16 to carry a “reference book” containing personal info and employment history
Africans were often compelled to violate the pass laws to find work to support their families
harassment, fines, and arrests under pass laws were a constant threat to Africans
protests against these humiliating laws fueled the anti-apartheid struggle and led to more than 17 mill arrests
1956: Women’s March, Pretoria
since the early 20th century, african women actively opposed the pass laws restricting movement of africans
they understood that these laws would tear african families apart, where they could work and live
women played a key role in the African National Congress in 1950s and encouraged women’s leadership
the Federation of South African Women began organizing women and led to local demonstrations
over 20,000 women participated in the women’s march on Pretoria, the capital, in 1956
one of the leaders was Frances Baard, after the women’s march, the government charged her with treason and arrested her five years later
1959 - 1981: Bantu Homelands
the Bantustans were a small territory that the National Party set aside for Black South Africans
was created by the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959, which divided Africans into ten ethnically discrete groups, each assigned a traditional homeland
the homelands constituted on 13% of the land
the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970 declared that all africans were citizens of homelands, rather than South Africa itself
this was a step toward the government’s ultimate goal of having no African citizens of South Africa
between 1976 and 1981, 4 homelands- Transkei, Venda, Bophu, and Ciskei- were declared independent by the government, and eight million africans lost their South African citizenship
1960 - 1980s: Forced Removal in South Africa
from 1960 to 1983, the apartheid government forcibly removed 3.5 mill black south africans in one of the largest mass removals of people in history
people were forced to move in order to divide and control racially-separate communities at a time of growing organized resistance to apartheid in urban areas
they had lived there for generations in what the government called “Black spots” in areas that the government had designated as part of “white” South Africa
some entire townships were destroyed and their residents removed so they now faced long commutes to their jobs
in the 1980s, popular resistance to removals was widespread, and government plans to remove up to two million more people were never carried out
1960: Sharpeville Massacre
the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), a splinter group of the African National Congress (ANC) created in 1959
organized a countrywide demonstration for March 21, 1960, for the abolition of South Africa’s pass laws
20,000 black people gathered near the police station at Sharpeville
so then the officers opened fire on them with submachine guns
a state of emergency was declared in South Africa, more than 11,000 people were detained, and the PAC and ANC were outlawed
outlawed- make something illegal
1962 - 1988: International Boycotts
in November 1962, the United Nations General Assembly passed a non-binding resolution establishing the United Nations Special Committee against apartheid
committee called for economic and other sanctions on South Africa; however, many nations refused to join the committee
boycotts and divestment took the form of refusing to buy South African goods, refusing to support South African professors, and refusing to make business investments in South Africa until apartheid ended
South Africa did not compete at Olympic Games from 1964 to 1988, as a part of the sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era
1963 - 1978: Kenya Gains Independence
the british ruled Kenya and many british settlers resisted Kenyan independence
they were forced to accept African self-government
Jomo Kenyatta was a Kenyan nationalist who viewed independence as the only option for Africans
the Mau Mau was a secret society made up of mostly native Kenyan farmers forced out of the farmlands by the British
the Mau Mau sought to push the white farmers into leaving the highlands
Kenyatta claimed to have no connection to the Mau Mau but refused to condemn the organization
as a result, the british imprisoned him for nearly a decade
the british granted Kenya independence in 1963
Kenyatta became president of the new nation
he worked hard to unite the country’s various ethnic and language groups
his successor, Daniel Moi, was less successful and faced increasing opposition
1965 - 2006: Freedom and Turmoil for Congo
one of the most exploited was the Belgian Congo
Belgium has plundered the colony’s rich resources of rubber and copper and ruled with a harsh hand and provided the population with no social services
Belgium granted independence in 1960 to the Congo
it was renamed Zaire in 1971 - 1997
an army officer named Joseph Mobutu, later known as Mobutu Sese Seko, seized power in 1965
he maintained control through force, one party rule, and gifts to supporters
he was overthrown in 1997 by rebel leader Laurent Kabila
the country was then renamed again as the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Kabila promised a transition to democracy and free elections in 1999 but that never happened
Kabila’s son, Joseph Kabila, took power and began a quest for peace
in 2006, Joseph Kabila was elected president under a new constitution
1974 - 1976: Soweto Uprising
when the language of Afrikaans alongside English was made required in schools in 1974, Black students began mobilizing themselves
in June 1976, students mobilized by the South African Students Movement's Action Committee marched peacefully to demonstrate and protest against the government’s directive
they were met by heavily armed police who fired teargas and later live ammunition on demonstrating students
resulted in a widespread revolt that turned into an uprising against the government in Soweto
images of the police firing on peacefully demonstrating students were spread around the world as South Africa’s brutality was exposed
1985 - 1986: Mandela Refused Pardon
in January 1985 President P. W. Botha offered Nelson Mandela, leader of the banned African National Congress (ANC), conditional release from the prison sentence he had been serving since 1964
condition of his release was that he renounce violent protest as a means to bring about change in South Africa
Mandela communicated his refusal of the offer through his daughter, Zinzi Mandela, who read his statement to this effect at a rally in Soweto on 10 February 1985
by 1986, President P.W. Botha declared a state of emergency and implemented martial law
over the next four years, thousands of Black people were detained or killed
1980s - 2002: Struggle for Democracy
black south african bishop, Desmond Tutu, has led an economic campaign against apartheid
he asked many foreign nations to not do business with south africa
in response, many nations imposed trade restrictions such as banning south africa from the olympic games
in 1989, F. W. Klerk’s goal was to transform south africa and end its isolation
in 1990, he legalized the ANC and also released Nelson Mandela form prison
over the next 18 months, the South African parliament repealed apartheid laws that had segregated public facilities and land ownership
the country needed to form a multiracial government
president de Klerk agreed to hold south africa’s first universal elections, in which people of all races could vote in 1994
during the president elections between Mandela and Klerk, the Inkatha Freedom Party, the rival party to the ANC, threatened to disrupt the process
ANC won the majority of votes so Mandela was elected president
Mandela resigned in 1999, but the nation’s democratic government continued
in 1996, south african passed a new, more democratic constitution
this guaranteed equal rights for all citizens
in 1999, ANC official Thabo Mbeki won election as president but faced problems, such as high crime rate, rape, murder, unemployment, and economic downturn
he promoted a free market economic policy, which means no government control
in 2002, south africa engaged in negotiations to establish free-trade agreements with a number of countries
this was an attempt at opening the south african economy to foreign competition and investment, and promoting growth and employment
one of the biggest problems south africa faced was the AIDS epidemic
Mbeki disputed that AIDS was caused by HIV, but his opinion caused controversy and made people dislike him
1984 - 2003: The Coldest War
muslims and hindus fought over the giant Siachen glacier high above Kashmir
the dividing line established by the 1949 cease-fire did not extend to the glacier because officials figured neither side would try and occupy such a frigid strip of land
in 1984, both sides sent troops to take the glacier
indian and pakistani soldiers shoot at each other from trenches in temperatures that reach below -70
in 2003, pakistan and india declared a cease-fire
1989 - 1994: Bans Lifted, Mandela Released and Elected President
1989, F.W. de Klerk replaced P.W. Botha as president
F.W. de Klerk made some promises to end white domination in South Africa and relaxed some of the apartheid laws
1990, de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC and other political organizations
de Klerk also removed the restrictions placed on Black communities since the state of emergency declared by Botha in 1986
1990, Mandela was finally freed at the age of 71 after being imprisoned for 27 years
after Mandela’s release, he pledged to continue his fight against apartheid
1994, first democratic elections are held and Nelson Mandela is elected president
1994: Rwanda Genocide
Rwanda, a small country in central Africa
population was made of 3 ethnic groups: Twa, Tutsi, and Hutu
Hutu and Tutsi shared the same king and were together
Hutu was the majority and Tutsi was the minority
Tutsi was favored by the Europeans to help take over Hutus
Tutsi was targeted in the genocide
after the Berlin Conference, Rwanda fell under German rule but then it was transferred to Belgian control in 1919
it was only with the European colonialism that a racist ideology was introduced
Belgian rule introduced identity cards and a policy of divide and rule
Rwanda became independent in 1962
genocide was Hutu people attacking and killing the Tutsi minority
Hutu extremists played on the public’s deep-rooted concerns about unemployment and economic decline, laying the blame on rebel Tutsi forces, the RPF
they fostered fears that Tutsi exiles returning from previous genocides would grab the land from Hutus
Hutu extremists published the Ten Commandments in 1993, in the government-controlled papers, Kangura, calling for total rule over the Tutsi minority through Hutu power
the tv station called Mille Collines, founded in 1993, played a central role in fostering genocide by playing on Hutus’ fear of a return of Tutsi dominance
the message was that no Tutsi should be spared, neither young nor old', no Hutu was exempt from the task of exterminating the Tutsi people
the Tutsis fled to neighboring countries, where they formed a guerilla army called the Rwandan Patriotic Front
in 1990, they invaded Rwanda and forced peace talks with Juvenal Habyarimana, the Hutu president
anxious to stay in power, he agreed to sign the peace treaties
the genocide began when President Habyarimana’s plane was shot down
as a result of the identity cards by European colonialism, the ethnicity of people in Rwanda could easily be traced
the Belgians had measuring tapes and calipers that weighed and measured Rwandan noses, to determine if they were Hutu or Tutsi
Tutsi had nobler and more naturally aristocratic dimensions than the coarse noses of Hutus
1995 - 2007: Civilian Presidents
Obasanjo was an ethnic Yoruba from southwest Nigeria
he had the support of the military and worked strong, unified Nigeria
he attempted to draw the attention of the world to the need for debt relief
controversial 2007 elections brought President Umaru Yar Adua to power
he faced problems: war, violence, corruption, poverty, famine
decolonization: the process of ending colonial rule and the establishment of new governments; the independence of nations after ww2 that were once ruled by European powers
there was increasing European economic influence in south Asia
at first, the Mughal Dynasty limited European influence
by the 1800s, however, the Mughal Empire was weakening
dozens of small states, each headed by a ruler or maharajah, broke away from Mughal control
as a result, the British East India Company gained greater influence in many parts of India
1857 - 1858: British Expand Control Over South Asia
the British East India company ruled India with little interference from the British gov
the company had its own army, led by British officers and staffed by sepoys
sepoys: indian soldiers
in 1857, information spread among the sepoys that the cartridges of their new British rifles were greased with beef and pork fat
both hindus, who consider the cow sacred, and muslims, who do not eat pork, were outraged by the news
sepoy rebellion: some sepoys refused to accept the cartridges and were jailed by the British
as a result, the sepoys captured the city of Delhi
the sepoy rebellion was a turning point in indian history
as a result of the rebellion, in 1858, the British government took direct command of india as a colony
the british also increased their “divide and rule” policy to emphasize differences between groups in order to keep control
1850 - 1911: Britain’s Relations with India
the industrial revolution had turned Britain into the world’s workshop
india was a major supplier of raw materials for that workshop
the British considered India the brightest “jewel in the crown” as the most valuable of all of Britain’s colonies
the British set up restrictions that prevented the Indian economy from operating on its own
british policies called for india to produce raw materials for British manufacturing and to buy British goods
indian competition with british goods were prohibited
for example, india had previously produced popular handloom textiles, but this industry was put out of business by imported British textiles
india became valuable to british after they established a railroad network there
railroads transported raw products from the interior to the ports and manufactured goods back again
most of the raw materials were agricultural products produced on plantations
plantation crops included tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, and opium
the british shipped opium to China and exchanged it for tea, which they then sold in England
cotton production in india increased when the civil war in the US cut off supplies of cotton for british textile mills
the emphasis on cash crops, production of crops to be sold, instead of used by the people farming, resulted in a loss of self-sufficiency for many villagers
it also caused famine and reduced food production
britain had the world’s third longest railroad network
it allowed for further british control over the economy and brought unity to the connected regions
there was also modern road networks, telephone, telegraph lines, dams, bridges, and irrigation canals that modernized india
in 1885, the indian national congress and 1906 the muslim league
these nationalists called for self-government and were inflamed by the partition of Bengal
the partition of Bengal: the british divided it into a hindu section and a muslim section
in 1911, the british took back the order and divided the province in a different way
1906 - 1942: The Indian Subcontinent Achieves Freedom
after the world struggle against dictatorship, many leaders argued that no country should control another nation
meanwhile, the people of colonized nations continued to press even harder for their freedom
indian resistance to britain, intensified in 1939, when britain attacked indian forced without first consulting the colony’s elected representatives
the indian leader, Mohandas Ghandi, made a nonviolent campaign of noncooperation with the british
in 1942, the british tried to gain the support of the nationalists by promising governmental changes, however this did not include indian independence
india had two main religions: hindu and muslim
the third religion was called sikh
the indian national congress, Congress Party, was india’s national political party
most members of this party were hindu, but still had many muslim members
in competition was the Muslim League, and organization founded in 1906 in india to protect muslim interests
leader of this party was Muhammad Ali Jinnah
he insisted that all muslims resign from the independence if it meant rule by the hindu-dominated congress party
after ww2, britain faced war debts and couldn’t afford the expense of maintaining and governing distant colonies like india
1910 - 1986: South Africa under Apartheid
racial conflict was the result of colonial rule
a small white majority ruled a large black majority
in 1910, South Africa gained self-rule as a dominion of the british empire
in 1912, black south Africans formed the African National Congress (ANC) to fight for their rights, they organized boycotts and strikes
one of these leaders was Nelson Mandela
in 1931, it became an independent member of the british commonwealth
the constitution gave whites power and denied the black majority its rights
in 1948, the National Party came to power in South Africa
this party promoted Afrikaner, or Dutch South African, nationalism
it also instituted a policy of apartheid, complete separation of the races and banned social contacts between whites and blacks
established segregated schools, hospitals, and neighborhoods
in 1959, the minority government set up reserves, called homelands
blacks were forbidden to live in white areas
although blacks made up about 75% of the population, the government set aside only 13% of the land for them
in 1976, riots over school policies broke out in the black town of Soweto
in 1977, police beat popular protest leader, Stephen Biko, to death while he was in custody
in 1986, the government declared a nationwide state of emergency
1914 - 1919: World War I’s Impact on India and Britain
britain brought india into the fight
large number of indian troops served overseas
in exchange, the british government declared that it would gradually increase indian participation in the british raj
british raj - british rule over the indian subcontinent
the british government of india enacted a series of repressive emergency powers and they passed the Rowlatt Acts in early 1919
this extended the repressive wartime measures
it stated that political cases could be tried without juries and that people suspected of acting against the government could be jailed without a trial
1915: Gandhi Returned to India
after Gandhi’s time in South Africa, he returned to india in 1915
gandhi’s first major protests targeted british landlords who forced indian farmers to grow a cash crop called indigo and to sell it at a low price instead of more in-demand crops that they wanted to grow and could make more money with
he also led protests against the british taxation of a region suffering from the effects of floods and famine
1918 - 1962: Rwanda Timeline
1918: the Treaty of Versailles, Rwanda-Urundi is made a League of Nations to be governed by Belgium
the 2 territories are ruled by two different Tutsi monarchs
the minority Tutsi are favored over the Hutu majority
the Belgians used the Tutsi minority to enforce their rule
1926: Belgians introduce a system of ethnic identity cards differentiating Hutus from Tutsis
the Belgians believed that the Tutsis in Rwanda were racially superior to the Hutus because they had more European features
the Belgians only allowed Tutsis to be educated and participate in the government
1957: PARMEHUTU (party for the emancipation of the Hutus) is formed while Rwanda is still under Belgian rule
1959: Hutus rebel against the Belgian colonial power and the Tutsi elite
1961-1962: Belgians withdraw and Rwanda and Burundi become two separate and independent nations
a hutu revolution in Rwanda instills a new president, Gregoire Kayibanda
1919: Amritsar Massacre
also called Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, happened in Amritsar, India in April of 1919
in Amritsar, news that prominent Indian leaders had been arrested sparked violent protests
a force of several dozen troops was given the task of restoring order; among the measures taken was a ban on public gatherings
a crowd of at least 10,000 men, women, and children gathered in an open space known as the Jallianwala Bagh, which was nearly completely enclosed by walls and had only one exit
many had come to the city from the surrounding region to celebrate Baisakhi, a spring festival
without warning, British troops opened fire on the crowd, reportedly shooting hundreds of rounds
1921: Gandhi is Given Leadership in the Indian National Congress
Gandhi was given leadership of the Indian National Congress
he reorganized the group with the goal of Swaraj (self-rule) through the use of nonviolent forms of protest
Gandhi argued that India needed to be self-sufficient and so they would not have to not rely on the British
one way of doing this, he claimed, was for Indians to make their own clothes.
the push for Indians to give up buying British textiles and to make their own clothes was called the Homespun Movement
1930: The Salt March
salt was being heavily taxed by british rulers and indians were jailed just by making or selling salt
in march, gandhi set out on a 240-mile trek to the sea to gather salt
for 23 days, they marched and eventually reached over two miles
soon, people all over india were making their own salt
the authorities responded by imprisoning over 60k indians for this illegal activity, including gandhi
1930 - 1960: Nigeria
after the 1930s, political activities in Nigeria focused on ways to end british rule
European intrusion promoted misogynistic ideologies and deprived women of their political and religious power that they held
the “Women’s War” was when thousands of Igbo women organized a revolt against the policies imposed by british gov in southeastern Nigeria
Nigeria got independence in 1960
in the North are Hausa-Fulani, who are mostly muslim
in the south are the Yoruba and the Igbo, who are mostly Christians, Muslims, or animists
the Igbo, a farming people, live to the east
the Yoruba, farming people with a tradition of kings, live to the west
the Nigerians set up 3 states, one for each region and ethnic group, with a political party in each
1935 - 1937: Government Act and Elections
The Government of India Act of 1935 was a new plan for ruling india that involved more indian participation in the government and free elections to select representatives from each province
in 1937, the first elections took place
the indian national congress candidates won a majority of the provinces, while the muslim league did poorly in the elections
1940: Lahore Resolution
in 1940, the muslim league, led by Jinnah, wrote the Lahore Resolution
this was a statement that demanded that india be separated into two states: one for hindus and one for muslims
politicians like Jinnah feared that the Indian National Congress, which was dominated by hindus, would not negotiate for the best interests of the muslim population
1942 - 1946: The Quit India Movement, and Indian National Army
in 1942, Gandhi and the Indian National Congress launched the Quit India Movement
this demanded immediate independence for india
in a speech called “Do or Die” given in 1942, Gandhi urged the masses to act as an independent nation and to not follow the orders of the british
large scale protests were held all over the country, and the british responded with mass detentions and arrests
other groups of indians started to rebel against the british, such as a 1946 sailors in the Royal Indian Navy
they revolted against the British and refused to work, carried on violent protests, and took over ships
1946 - 1948: Partition and Bloodshed
in august 1946, muslims and hindus were clashing in Calcutta
partition - division of india into separate hindu and muslim nations
originally proposed by india’s muslims
the northwest and eastern regions of india became pakistan
this is where most muslims lived
in july 1947, the British House of Commons passed an act that granted india and pakistan independence in one month’s time
during this short period, everyone fought for a government position and the whole civil service was divided down
hindus, muslims, and sikhs had to decide where to go (either india or pakistan)
violence erupted between these religions
muslims killed sikhs who were moving into india
hindus and sikhs were killing muslims who were headed into pakistan
Ghandi went to the indian capital of Delhi to plead for fair treatment of muslim refugees, but was killed in 1948
1947: The Partition of India
partition of India: divide the colony into two separate and independent nations, india and pakistan
pakistan gained independence in august of 1947 and was led by Jinnah
india gained independence in august 1947 and was led by prime minister Nehru
Gandhi was assassinated by a hindu extremist who felt that Gandhi had betrayed the hindu cause
1947 - 1949: The Battle For Kashmir
muslims and hindus fought over the small region of Kashmir
Kashmir lay at the northern point of india next to pakistan
Kashmir had a majority of muslim population
the fighting continued until the UN arranged a cease-fire in 1949
the cease-fire left a third of Kashmir under pakistani control and the rest under indian control
1947 - 1966: Ghana and Britain Relations
the british colony of the Gold Coast became the first African colony south of the Sahara to achieve independence
the leader of Ghana’s nonviolent movement was Kwame Nkrumah
in 1947, he worked to liberate the Cold Coast from the british and organized boycotts and strikes
when the Gold Coast gained independence in 1957, it took the name Ghana
Kwame became Ghana’s first prime minister and president for life
his programs for industrialization, health, and education showed good intentions but they were very expensive and strengthened opposition
he was often criticized for neglecting economic problems in his own country and spending too much time on Pan-African efforts
in 1966, while Nkrumah was in China, the army and police in Ghana seized power
1948 - 1962: Nelson Mandela Arrested
in 1962, he was arrested for conspiring to overthrow the state and sentenced to life imprisonment
Mandela spent 27 years in prison in Robben Island for his involvement in underground armed resistance activities
1952 - 1986: Pass Laws in South Africa
pass laws were designed to control the movement of Africans under apartheid
in the 19th century, the new pass laws were enacted for the purpose of ensuring a reliable supply of cheap African labor for the gold and diamond mines
in 1952, the government enacted an even more rigid law that required all African males over the age of 16 to carry a “reference book” containing personal info and employment history
Africans were often compelled to violate the pass laws to find work to support their families
harassment, fines, and arrests under pass laws were a constant threat to Africans
protests against these humiliating laws fueled the anti-apartheid struggle and led to more than 17 mill arrests
1956: Women’s March, Pretoria
since the early 20th century, african women actively opposed the pass laws restricting movement of africans
they understood that these laws would tear african families apart, where they could work and live
women played a key role in the African National Congress in 1950s and encouraged women’s leadership
the Federation of South African Women began organizing women and led to local demonstrations
over 20,000 women participated in the women’s march on Pretoria, the capital, in 1956
one of the leaders was Frances Baard, after the women’s march, the government charged her with treason and arrested her five years later
1959 - 1981: Bantu Homelands
the Bantustans were a small territory that the National Party set aside for Black South Africans
was created by the Promotion of Bantu Self-Government Act of 1959, which divided Africans into ten ethnically discrete groups, each assigned a traditional homeland
the homelands constituted on 13% of the land
the Bantu Homelands Citizenship Act of 1970 declared that all africans were citizens of homelands, rather than South Africa itself
this was a step toward the government’s ultimate goal of having no African citizens of South Africa
between 1976 and 1981, 4 homelands- Transkei, Venda, Bophu, and Ciskei- were declared independent by the government, and eight million africans lost their South African citizenship
1960 - 1980s: Forced Removal in South Africa
from 1960 to 1983, the apartheid government forcibly removed 3.5 mill black south africans in one of the largest mass removals of people in history
people were forced to move in order to divide and control racially-separate communities at a time of growing organized resistance to apartheid in urban areas
they had lived there for generations in what the government called “Black spots” in areas that the government had designated as part of “white” South Africa
some entire townships were destroyed and their residents removed so they now faced long commutes to their jobs
in the 1980s, popular resistance to removals was widespread, and government plans to remove up to two million more people were never carried out
1960: Sharpeville Massacre
the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), a splinter group of the African National Congress (ANC) created in 1959
organized a countrywide demonstration for March 21, 1960, for the abolition of South Africa’s pass laws
20,000 black people gathered near the police station at Sharpeville
so then the officers opened fire on them with submachine guns
a state of emergency was declared in South Africa, more than 11,000 people were detained, and the PAC and ANC were outlawed
outlawed- make something illegal
1962 - 1988: International Boycotts
in November 1962, the United Nations General Assembly passed a non-binding resolution establishing the United Nations Special Committee against apartheid
committee called for economic and other sanctions on South Africa; however, many nations refused to join the committee
boycotts and divestment took the form of refusing to buy South African goods, refusing to support South African professors, and refusing to make business investments in South Africa until apartheid ended
South Africa did not compete at Olympic Games from 1964 to 1988, as a part of the sporting boycott of South Africa during the apartheid era
1963 - 1978: Kenya Gains Independence
the british ruled Kenya and many british settlers resisted Kenyan independence
they were forced to accept African self-government
Jomo Kenyatta was a Kenyan nationalist who viewed independence as the only option for Africans
the Mau Mau was a secret society made up of mostly native Kenyan farmers forced out of the farmlands by the British
the Mau Mau sought to push the white farmers into leaving the highlands
Kenyatta claimed to have no connection to the Mau Mau but refused to condemn the organization
as a result, the british imprisoned him for nearly a decade
the british granted Kenya independence in 1963
Kenyatta became president of the new nation
he worked hard to unite the country’s various ethnic and language groups
his successor, Daniel Moi, was less successful and faced increasing opposition
1965 - 2006: Freedom and Turmoil for Congo
one of the most exploited was the Belgian Congo
Belgium has plundered the colony’s rich resources of rubber and copper and ruled with a harsh hand and provided the population with no social services
Belgium granted independence in 1960 to the Congo
it was renamed Zaire in 1971 - 1997
an army officer named Joseph Mobutu, later known as Mobutu Sese Seko, seized power in 1965
he maintained control through force, one party rule, and gifts to supporters
he was overthrown in 1997 by rebel leader Laurent Kabila
the country was then renamed again as the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Kabila promised a transition to democracy and free elections in 1999 but that never happened
Kabila’s son, Joseph Kabila, took power and began a quest for peace
in 2006, Joseph Kabila was elected president under a new constitution
1974 - 1976: Soweto Uprising
when the language of Afrikaans alongside English was made required in schools in 1974, Black students began mobilizing themselves
in June 1976, students mobilized by the South African Students Movement's Action Committee marched peacefully to demonstrate and protest against the government’s directive
they were met by heavily armed police who fired teargas and later live ammunition on demonstrating students
resulted in a widespread revolt that turned into an uprising against the government in Soweto
images of the police firing on peacefully demonstrating students were spread around the world as South Africa’s brutality was exposed
1985 - 1986: Mandela Refused Pardon
in January 1985 President P. W. Botha offered Nelson Mandela, leader of the banned African National Congress (ANC), conditional release from the prison sentence he had been serving since 1964
condition of his release was that he renounce violent protest as a means to bring about change in South Africa
Mandela communicated his refusal of the offer through his daughter, Zinzi Mandela, who read his statement to this effect at a rally in Soweto on 10 February 1985
by 1986, President P.W. Botha declared a state of emergency and implemented martial law
over the next four years, thousands of Black people were detained or killed
1980s - 2002: Struggle for Democracy
black south african bishop, Desmond Tutu, has led an economic campaign against apartheid
he asked many foreign nations to not do business with south africa
in response, many nations imposed trade restrictions such as banning south africa from the olympic games
in 1989, F. W. Klerk’s goal was to transform south africa and end its isolation
in 1990, he legalized the ANC and also released Nelson Mandela form prison
over the next 18 months, the South African parliament repealed apartheid laws that had segregated public facilities and land ownership
the country needed to form a multiracial government
president de Klerk agreed to hold south africa’s first universal elections, in which people of all races could vote in 1994
during the president elections between Mandela and Klerk, the Inkatha Freedom Party, the rival party to the ANC, threatened to disrupt the process
ANC won the majority of votes so Mandela was elected president
Mandela resigned in 1999, but the nation’s democratic government continued
in 1996, south african passed a new, more democratic constitution
this guaranteed equal rights for all citizens
in 1999, ANC official Thabo Mbeki won election as president but faced problems, such as high crime rate, rape, murder, unemployment, and economic downturn
he promoted a free market economic policy, which means no government control
in 2002, south africa engaged in negotiations to establish free-trade agreements with a number of countries
this was an attempt at opening the south african economy to foreign competition and investment, and promoting growth and employment
one of the biggest problems south africa faced was the AIDS epidemic
Mbeki disputed that AIDS was caused by HIV, but his opinion caused controversy and made people dislike him
1984 - 2003: The Coldest War
muslims and hindus fought over the giant Siachen glacier high above Kashmir
the dividing line established by the 1949 cease-fire did not extend to the glacier because officials figured neither side would try and occupy such a frigid strip of land
in 1984, both sides sent troops to take the glacier
indian and pakistani soldiers shoot at each other from trenches in temperatures that reach below -70
in 2003, pakistan and india declared a cease-fire
1989 - 1994: Bans Lifted, Mandela Released and Elected President
1989, F.W. de Klerk replaced P.W. Botha as president
F.W. de Klerk made some promises to end white domination in South Africa and relaxed some of the apartheid laws
1990, de Klerk lifted the ban on the ANC and other political organizations
de Klerk also removed the restrictions placed on Black communities since the state of emergency declared by Botha in 1986
1990, Mandela was finally freed at the age of 71 after being imprisoned for 27 years
after Mandela’s release, he pledged to continue his fight against apartheid
1994, first democratic elections are held and Nelson Mandela is elected president
1994: Rwanda Genocide
Rwanda, a small country in central Africa
population was made of 3 ethnic groups: Twa, Tutsi, and Hutu
Hutu and Tutsi shared the same king and were together
Hutu was the majority and Tutsi was the minority
Tutsi was favored by the Europeans to help take over Hutus
Tutsi was targeted in the genocide
after the Berlin Conference, Rwanda fell under German rule but then it was transferred to Belgian control in 1919
it was only with the European colonialism that a racist ideology was introduced
Belgian rule introduced identity cards and a policy of divide and rule
Rwanda became independent in 1962
genocide was Hutu people attacking and killing the Tutsi minority
Hutu extremists played on the public’s deep-rooted concerns about unemployment and economic decline, laying the blame on rebel Tutsi forces, the RPF
they fostered fears that Tutsi exiles returning from previous genocides would grab the land from Hutus
Hutu extremists published the Ten Commandments in 1993, in the government-controlled papers, Kangura, calling for total rule over the Tutsi minority through Hutu power
the tv station called Mille Collines, founded in 1993, played a central role in fostering genocide by playing on Hutus’ fear of a return of Tutsi dominance
the message was that no Tutsi should be spared, neither young nor old', no Hutu was exempt from the task of exterminating the Tutsi people
the Tutsis fled to neighboring countries, where they formed a guerilla army called the Rwandan Patriotic Front
in 1990, they invaded Rwanda and forced peace talks with Juvenal Habyarimana, the Hutu president
anxious to stay in power, he agreed to sign the peace treaties
the genocide began when President Habyarimana’s plane was shot down
as a result of the identity cards by European colonialism, the ethnicity of people in Rwanda could easily be traced
the Belgians had measuring tapes and calipers that weighed and measured Rwandan noses, to determine if they were Hutu or Tutsi
Tutsi had nobler and more naturally aristocratic dimensions than the coarse noses of Hutus
1995 - 2007: Civilian Presidents
Obasanjo was an ethnic Yoruba from southwest Nigeria
he had the support of the military and worked strong, unified Nigeria
he attempted to draw the attention of the world to the need for debt relief
controversial 2007 elections brought President Umaru Yar Adua to power
he faced problems: war, violence, corruption, poverty, famine