Ethics - comes from the greek word ethos, meaning character. Often seen as synonymous with morals and can be defined as “moral philosophy” study what good/bad character traits are.

Three main areas of study is ethics - metaethics, normative theories, applied ethics (debates)

Approaches to ethics - ethicists take a normative or prescriptive approach to define how people should act and the lives they should lead. 

Meta (in philosophy) - meaning beyond or of a higher order

Metaethics - meaning of terms explored when using ethical questions and the methods used to carry out the exploration

Applied ethics - applies theories of action, character, or value to moral dilemmas. 

3 types of normative theories - theories of action, theories of character, and theories of value

Normative theories of action - questioning how people act and why

Normative theories of character - questions good and bad character traits

Normative theories of value - questions about people’s values of assessment of worth.
3 common types of normative ethicists - deontological ethicists, virtue ethicists, consequentialists

Deontological theories - relating to duty, what rule should be followed. Concerned with moral means rather than the end result. Both of these words mean norms or standards for human behaviour

Virtue ethicists theories - concerned with good and bad character traits such as virtue vs flaws

Consequentalist theories - getting the best consequences for the majority. Concerned with the neds rather than the means

Ethical dilemmas - dilemmas that arise in all aspects of human life. Are often hypothetical but they’re used to evaluate common situations and predict consequences of behaviour

Humanism - emphasizes the secular or human realm over the religious or spiritual realm. Emphasizes the importance of free will of moral choice and based off a concern for others. 

The golden mean - the rule of moderation or middle between two extremes of moral behaviour 

Ethical absolutists on determining right and wrong - there is one universal code that determines right and wrong that should be followed at all times. Ex, killing is always wrong

Ethical universalists on determining right and wrong - universal moral code is not absolute, circumstances matter. Ex, killing is sometimes wrong depending on the circumastances

Ethical relativists on determining right and wrong - ethical norms are socially determined and conform to the time period and people in the society. Ex, the morality of killing is not absolute and depends on social, cultural, and indivudal context.

Objectivists in ethics - knowledge of morals is objective. It came stem from a divine source, nature, social norms, or the ability to reason

Subjectivists in ethics - morals based on individual opinions and beliefs that are equally valid.

Ethics questions that matter - 1. What is a good life? 2. What is a good person? 3. What is the right thing to do 

Socrates' response to good life - an unexamined life is not a life worth living. The good life is a life of ethical action within a community of family, friends, and the society around them. Life is measured by one’s actions and the virtues that guide them. 

Buddhist response to the good life - four noble truths; life is suffering, suffering arises from desire, desire can be eliminated, freedom from desire can be achieved through the eightfold path. The buddhist goal is a state of nirvana, which can be achieved with a life of simplicity. Belief in reincarnation/rebirth, depending on if a “good” life is lived. Buddhist virtues include non-violence, compassion for all living creatrues, kindness, and selflessness

Confucianist response to the good life - the good life involves searching for enlightenment, searching for harmony in the community as a whole. The individual is not as important as the community. Confucianism is a virtue ethic. The five main virtues are; kindness, uprightness, decorum, wisdom, faithfulness. 

Taoist response to the good life - similar to confucian response. Emphasize harmony and a holistic approach but in nature instead as opposed to community. Balancing extremes such as ying and yang

Hedonist response to the good life - the good life is being devoted to the pursuit of pleasure, which leads to happiness. Epicurus believed that pleasure is in the mind as opposed to the senses, serenity is the ultimate pleasure. Minimizing desires and overcoming fears. 

Stoic response to the good life - stoicism was popular in ancient Greece, true happiness is achieved through wisdom as opposed to pleasure. The universe is governed by logos and we should strive to live well-ordered lives in accordance with it. Exercising control over emotions and intentions while being indifferent to consequences. 

Ubuntu response to the good life - african worldview based on the values of intense humanass, caring, respect, and community. A person is a person through other people. Enriching yourself to enable the community around you to improve. 

Anishinaabe principles response to the good life - the seven grandfather teachings; love, respect, bravery, honesty, humility, wisdom, truth

Aristotle on being a good person - he believed in future ethics. Doing things in a way that reflected rational thought and one’s ability to make the best of out of their skills, talents, and opportunities. Search for eudemonia or happiness. Practical wisdom and good character are governed by moderation

Thomas Aquinus on being a good person - Combined Christian ideas of God with Aristotle’s thinking about reason, happiness and virtue. People achieve perfection by using their reason to know God

W.D. Ross on being a good person - virtue ethicist. following these virtues in ascending importance; fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice , beneficence, self improvement, non-maleficence. These are not just virtues but duties and obligations. 

Judith Shklars on being a good person - cruelty is the worst human vice  and it should be the most important thing to avoid

Existentialist’s on being a good person - a good person is one who makes individual moral choices and takes responsibility. Absolute moral values do not exist and the most important virtue is authenticity, being true to oneself while making moral decisions. 

Kierkegaard on being a good person - devout christian background. Each person has a direct relationship and access to God. people must make and judge their own moral choices. People should move beyond absolute ideas of evaluating actions/behaviours and be accountable only to God. 

Nietzsche on being a good person - god has disappeared and people are not accountable to him. People have to make their own choices. Now that a universal faith has disappeared, we must determine our own values. 

Sartre on being a good person - well known existentialist that became atheist and WW2. people must created their own meaning, all moral choices are made freely. Existence preceeds essence. Great responsibility of all choices, responsibility for the choices fall on the individual, not a higher power. Our freedom should not limit the freedom of others, and our freedom can cause angst or anxiety about making authentic choices. We’re morally obligated to recognize the value in both our freedom and the freedom of others. 

Divine command ethicists on the right thing to do - moral choices that are linked to religious beliefs such as the ten commandments. Belief in the existence of a supreme being that judges actions. Proper conducts is determined in holy books or scriptures

Utilitarians on the right thing to do - Utilitarianism was founded by Jermey Bentham. the consequence that brings the greatest amount of good for the greatest amount of people, usefulness of results. Bentham’s godson John Stuart Mill supported but was also criticals of these ideals. Not all pleasures are equal so pros and cons must be weighed. Aesthetic and intellectual pleasure have higher value that physical pleasure. 

Rule utilitarians on the right thing to do - instead of judging individual acts, rule utilitarians looks for general rules that apply to everyone. Don’t do something you can’t imagine someone else doing. Reason and religion do not contradict and we should seeks to maximize the good

Kantian ethicists on consequence vs intention - moral choices must not be judged by their consequence but by “the good will of the moral agent” (intention?). Consequences are out of the person’s control. The only thing that is good for good’s sake is good will. Good will is what accords with duty and duty is rational. 

Categorical imperative (Kant) - act of good will acting on moral principles that are justified by reason. A single rule that must always be obeyed. Kant ‘s best known version is “Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law of nature”. Another version is “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of another, always as an end and never as a mere means”. Treat others with respect and do not deceive or use others for your own benefit. No exceptions, all moral actions will uphold this principle. Emphasizes duty and ignores consequences so it is known as deontological theory. 

Strengths of kant’s categorical imperative - impartiality, no exceptions or playing favourites. Emphasis on motive, if someone means well their action will be morally right no matter the consequences. 

Weaknesses of kant’s categorical imperative - empathy; treating people as a means to an end. Consider individual situations instead of absolutes

John Stuart Mill’s response to categorical imperatives - argued that testing a moral choice by asking if it should be moral law is the same as measuring the consequences. 

Egoism - acting in ones own self interest. Ethical egoism says that people should act in their own self interest. Consequentalist school of thought that seeks the greatest good for the individual. 

Ayn Rand on egoism - asserts that there is no “society” only individual men. Therefore acting in your own self interest is the most logical path. Does not preclude helping others, people will help when they get something in return that is just human nature. 

Rational egoism - contracts for morally acceptable conduct is implicitly and explicitly arranged by members of the society. These arrangements are in everyone’s best interests so self interest supports morality. 

Problems with egoism - limit development of the self. To be fully human you have to acknowledge responsibility to others. James rachels challenges this idea saying that any action that helps others, no matter the motive, is not true egoism. 

Intuitionism - denies the importance of reason in moral decisions and asserts that truths are understood by intuition. Moral rules are intuitive and self evident, they cannot be justified by reason. If it feels right, do it. 

Emotivism or sentimentalism response - moral judgement are products of emotions and feelings of approval or disapproval.

Feminist response to the right thing to do - the ethics of care. Caring is the value that morality should be structured around. Empathy is key. More than doing harm, helping is key. 

Pragmatist response to the right thing to do - what works is guided by experience to promote moral evolution at the given time and place. To pre-set criteria and temporary solutions for temporary problems. 

Postmodernists on the right thing to do - challenge the idea that there’s one universal moral code. Richard rorty says that all moral values are entirely subjective and relative. 

Exucsing conditions in ethics - doing something wrong because of ignorance, compulsion, being compelled to do something, or trying and failing. These factors work in law as they might eliminate the mens rea (guilty mind) of a crime. 

Kongfuzi - contemporary buddha in china. Created the humanist code of behaviour and humanism as a whole

Aristotle (ethics) -   developed the golden mean. With plato he came up with a list of character traits that make up a good person. he believed in future ethics to be a good person. Doing things in a way that reflected rational thought and one’s ability to make the best of out of their skills, talents, and opportunities. 

Plato  (ethics)  - with aristotle, came up with a list of character traits that make up a good person. 

Buddha  (ethics) - came up with the eightfold path. believed that the good life is 4 moral truths; life is suffering, suffering arises from desire, desire can be eliminated, freedom from desire can be achieved through the eightfold path. The buddhist goal is a state of nirvana, which can be achieved with a life of simplicity. Belief in reincarnation/rebirth, depending on if a “good” life is lived. Buddhist virtues include non-violence, compassion for all living creatrues, kindness, and selflessness

Davind Hume  (ethics)  - believed in emotivism or sensitivity. Moral choices are not possible. They are claims of emotion and approval or disapproval. Had an issue with Aquinus’s natural law; just because something is/was a certain way now or in the past, doesn’t mean it ought to be that way. 

Socrates  (ethics)  - believed that an unexamined life is not a life worth living. The good life is a life of ethical action within a community of family, friends, and the society around them. Life is measured by one’s actions and the virtues that guide them. 

Epicurus  (ethics) - hedonist who believed that true pleasure was of the mind rather than the senses. Serenity is the ultimate pleasure. Believed in minimizing desires but also overcoming fears. 

Thomas Aquinus  (ethics)  - in terms of what it means to be a good person, he Christian ideas of God with Aristotle’s thinking about reason, happiness and virtue. People achieve perfection by using their reason to know God. came up with natural law ethics, actions are “natural” or “against nature”

W.D. Ross  (ethics) - virtue ethicist. To be a good person, we should follow these virtues in ascending importance; fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice , beneficence, self improvement, non-maleficence. These are not just virtues but duties and obligations. 

Kierkegaard  (ethics) - devout christian philosopher. Each person has a direct relationship and access to God. people must make and judge their own moral choices. People should move beyond absolute ideas of evaluating actions/behaviours and be accountable only to God. 

Nietzsche  (ethics) - god has disappeared and people are not accountable to him. People have to make their own choices to be a good person. Now that a universal faith has disappeared, we must determine our own values. 

Sartre  (ethics) - well known existentialist that became atheist and WW2. people must created their own meaning, all moral choices are made freely. Existence preceeds essence. Great responsibility of all choices, responsibility for the choices fall on the individual, not a higher power. Our freedom should not limit the freedom of others, and our freedom can cause angst or anxiety about making authentic choices. We’re morally obligated to recognize the value in both our freedom and the freedom of others. 

Kant  (ethics) - created the categorical imperative. There are no exceptions to the categorical imperative and and all moral action will uphold its principle. Impartiaulity and emphasis on motive. Emphasized that good will is in accordance with duty. Moral choices should not be judged by their consequences but by the good will of the moral agent. The only thing that is good for good’s sake is goodwill. 

Bentham  (ethics)- Utilitarianism. Focus on consequences of moral acts and the usefulness of the results

Assumption is that a “useful action brings about good, pleasure, advantage or benefit

For utilitarians, a  morally good choice is one that brings about the greatest good for the greatest number of people

John Stuart Mill  (ethics)- liked utilitarianist ideas but was also critical of them – needed more than just weighing pros and cons – not all pleasures are equal. Aesthetic and Intellectual pleasures are of greater value than physical pleasure. challenged the idea that consequences are not important by arguing that testing a moral choice by asking whether it should become moral law is measuring the consequences

Ayn Rand  (ethics)- Although egoism may seem like simple selfishness, Rand asserts that “there is no such thing as ‘society’ ... only individual men” therefore acting in one’s own interest is the only logical path – rational egoism. Acting in one’s own interest does not preclude helping others; people will help if they get something in return, and this is essential human nature. As an example “do unto others as you would have them do unto you” could be considered a rational egoist principle: you act in such a way as  you believe will come back around to you. Rational Egoism is similar to social contract theories which assert that morally acceptable conduct is implicitly or explicitly agreed upon by members of society – social arrangements are in everyone’s best interests therefore self-interest supports social morality

What are ethics - comes from the greek word ethos, meaning character. Often seen as synonymous with morals and can be defined as “moral philosophy” study what good/bad character traits are.

What is the difference between morals and ethics - ethics, coming from greek word ethos, means character. Morals, coming from latin word mores, meaning custom or habit. Some philosophers define morals as customary beliefs of how people should act and ethics as the study of those beliefs

What are the three categories of normative ethics - theories of action, theories of character, theories of value. 

What is metaethics - examining the meaning of terms terms used while exploring ethical questions and the methods used to carry out this exploration. 

Identify and give examples of absolutists, universalists, and relativists -  ethical absolutes believe there is a universal moral code that must always be followed; killing is always wrong. Ethical universal believe that moral code is not absolute and circumstances matter; killing is not always wrong, it depends on the circumstances. Ethical relativists believe that ethical norms are socially determined and conform to the time period and people in the society; the morality of killing is not absolute and depends on social, cultural, and individual context.

What is a good life - responses from socrates, stoicism, confucianism, taoism, ubuntu, aanishnabe

What is a good person - responses aristotle, aquinus, ross, shklar, existentialists, kierkagard, nietzsche, and sartre

What is the right thing to do - perspectives from kant, utilitarians, ayn rand, emotivists, intuitionvists, feminists, egoists