Mr. Dral Final Exam Review

Foundations and Causes of the Renaissance

The Renaissance was a period of profound cultural and intellectual rebirth that originated in Italy. Several key factors contributed to its emergence, including the primary inspiration drawn from the classical ruins and history of Rome within Italy itself. Economic success played a critical role, as the wealth of various Italian city-states provided the necessary funds to support the arts. Geographically, Italy’s central location between Europe, Asia, and Africa facilitated trade and the exchange of ideas. This era was further characterized by thriving cities, the presence of wealthy merchants, and a deep appreciation for the classic heritage left by Greece and Rome.

The Renaissance Man and Humanism

A hallmark of this period was the conceptualization of the "Renaissance Man," defined as a person who is exceptionally skilled in many different and diverse fields. A primary example of this is Leonardo da Vinci, who is described as a Renaissance Man because he excelled in art, science, and engineering. His multifaceted legacy includes his work as both a painter and a sculptor.

Central to the intellectual movement of the time was "humanism." Humanism shifted focus away from the spiritual world and toward the physical world, emphasizing that education should stimulate individual creativity. Humanism is built upon $3$ core beliefs: the importance of individual worth, a commitment to public service, and the necessity of developing one's personal skills and knowledge. This movement was deeply rooted in the study of ancient Greek and Roman writings.

Political Philosophy and Machiavelli

In his influential work "The Prince," Niccolò Machiavelli provided a realistic and often controversial guide to governance. Machiavelli argued that a successful ruler must prioritize realism and strategy, which sometimes requires being ruthless. He maintained that a leader should be willing to use any necessary methods to maintain their power and fulfill the ultimate responsibility of protecting the state.

The Protestant Reformation and the Role of Martin Luther

The Protestant Reformation was a significant religious movement originally aimed at purifying and fixing the church in response to perceived corruption within the Catholic Church. A major point of contention was the sale of indulgences, which were marketed as ways to get a soul into heaven faster. Martin Luther vehemently opposed these, believing that only God could decide who enters heaven. He also argued that the practice was inherently wrong because it did not allow the poor to gain access to heaven.

Martin Luther's main theological belief was that people are saved by faith in God alone, rather than through good works or the purchase of indulgences. The Reformation movement focused on spreading Luther’s words and providing every individual with direct access to the Bible, allowing people to see Lutheranism or Protestantism as a viable answer to church corruption.

Educational Shifts and the Printing Press

The invention of the printing press had a transformative effect on the education of the average person. By making books significantly cheaper and more accessible, the printing press led to a substantial increase in literacy and overall education among the general population.

Political and Global Changes in the Reformation Era

The Reformation also had major political consequences, as seen in England with King Henry VIII. He broke away from the Catholic Church entirely to create the Church of England, establishing himself as a separate religious and political authority.

On a global scale, the Age of Expansion and Exploration led to the Columbian Exchange, which was the vast exchange of plants, animals, diseases, food, and ideas between the Americas (the New World) and Afro-Eurasia (the Old World). To manage territorial disputes during this era, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, an agreement that divided newly discovered lands between the two nations to avoid direct conflict.

Absolute Monarchies and the Enlightenment

During the era of Absolute Monarchies, the concept of "divine right" was used to justify total royal authority. This was the idea that God created the monarchy and that the monarch acted as God’s direct representative on earth. King Louis XIV of France exemplified this by famously stating, "I am the state."

In contrast, the Enlightenment introduced ideas centered on reason and natural rights. Enlightenment thinkers used the metaphor of "darkness" to represent ignorance and "light" to represent knowledge. One of the most important scientific discoveries of this period was the heliocentric theory, evidenced by Galileo, which proved that the Earth and other planets revolve around the sun. Enlightenment philosophers aimed to use reason to improve society and ensure the protection of people's natural rights and freedoms. Notably, Montesquieu proposed the separation of government power into $3$ distinct branches to prevent tyranny.

The French Revolution and Napoleon

The French Revolution was triggered by a combination of severe economic issues, the influence of Enlightenment ideas, and the general suffering of the populace. A pivotal moment occurred on Bastille Day, when citizens of Paris stormed the Bastille prison, marking the start of the revolution. Prior to this, the Estates-General had been called in an attempt to solve France’s financial crisis and discuss revisions to the tax system.

The revolution eventually devolved into the Reign of Terror, a period during which approximately $40,000$ people suspected of being traitors were executed. High-profile victims included King Louis and Marie Antoinette, though any citizen speaking against the government was at risk. Following the chaos, Napoleon rose to power, though his eventual Russia campaign ended in failure due to the harsh winter and a lack of supplies that led to the deaths of many soldiers.

Nationalism and Latin American Revolutions

Nationalism fueled revolutions in Latin America, which were typically led by the Creoles (Spaniards born in the Americas). Another significant group in these revolutions were the Mestizos, who were individuals of mixed European and Indian race. In Europe, nationalism also played a role in the unification of modern-day Germany; Prussia led this effort because they possessed a strong army and were highly industrialized.

The Industrial Revolution and Imperialism

The Industrial Revolution is defined as the process of developing machine production of goods. It began primarily in the textile industry because it was the $1^{st}$ to adopt factory systems and new inventions to meet the high global demand for fabric.

During the subsequent era of Imperialism, the British Empire held the largest overseas empire in the world. In the competition for colonies, European countries held the Berlin Conference to divide the continent of Africa among themselves. Notably, Africans were not included in this conference, and decisions were made without their input. One of the most damaging legacies of imperialism in Africa was the creation of arbitrary borders that divided ethnic groups, leading to long-standing conflicts.

World War I: Causes and Conflict

World War $1$ was precipitated by decades of tension, particularly in the Balkans, which were known as the "Powder Keg of Europe" because Serbians controlled by the Austrians or Ottomans were desperate for freedom. The immediate event that started the war was the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand. History identifies $4$ MAIN causes of World War $1$:

1. Militarism
2. Alliances
3. Imperialism
4. Nationalism

During the war, new technologies like tanks, poisonous gas, and airplanes were introduced. Combat was often characterized by trench warfare, a style of fighting where soldiers occupied long, narrow ditches called trenches. To bring the war to an end, President Woodrow Wilson proposed his $14$ Points, which suggested an end to secret treaties, freedom of the seas, fair treatment for a losing Germany, and the creation of a League of Nations. The United States was eventually pulled into the conflict after Germany attempted to persuade Mexico to attack the USA.

The Aftermath of World War I and the Rise of WWII

The Treaty of Versailles attempted to punish Germany for World War $1$ by requiring them to pay heavy reparations, taking away their land and colonies, limiting the size of their military, and forcing them to accept full blame for the war. This left Germany with deep-seated anger, a desire for revenge, and a sense of national humiliation, which helped lead to World War $2$.

The Great Depression was a worldwide economic problem that facilitated the rise of fascism in Germany and elsewhere. Hitler and the Nazi party gained power by exploiting the economic crisis, political instability, and using clever propaganda to appeal to Germans desperate for strong leadership. Once Hitler was appointed chancellor, he consolidated his power.

World War II and the Holocaust

World War $2$ pitted the Axis Powers (Germany, Italy, and Japan) against the Allied Powers (United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union). Prior to the mass killings of the Holocaust, Jewish people were persecuted by being stripped of their rights, forced into ghettos, and sent to concentration camps. The war finally concluded after the United States dropped atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to the surrender of Japan.