Definitions
Learning
u Process of acquiring, through experience, new information or behaviors
Behaviorism
u An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable
behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior
Conditioning (i.e., associative learning)
u Learning that involves associations between environmental stimuli and
the organism’s responses. When conditioned, organisms learn:
u To expect and prepare for significant events (classical conditioning)
u To repeat acts that bring rewards and avoid acts that bring unwanted results
(operant conditioning)

Classical conditioning
u Process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to
elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a
similar response
u Pavlov’s method:

Process of Classical Conditioning
Step 1: demonstrate the association
between the unconditioned stimulus and
the unconditioned response
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
u Stimulus that already elicits a response
without additional learning
Unconditioned response (UR)
u The response elicited by an unconditioned
stimulus that is being observed

Step 2: Demonstrate that the neutral response does not
elicit the unconditioned response
Neutral stimulus (NS)
u Stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Process of Classical Conditioning

Step 2: Repeatedly pair a neutral stimulus paired with an
unconditioned stimulus
Process of Classical Conditioning

Process of Classical Conditioning
Step 3: Demonstrate that conditioning has
occurred by showing that the CS elicits the same
response as the US
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
u An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a
conditioned response after being paired with an
unconditioned stimulus
Conditioned response (CR)
u A response that is elicited by the conditioned
stimulus – same response as the UR
u Occurs after the CS has been associated with the
US

Classical conditioning

What’s your conditioned response?

What’s your conditioned response?

Test your understanding
u Five-year old Katrina is watching a storm from her window. A huge bolt of
lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap and Katrina jumps at the
noise. This happens several more times. There is a brief lull and then another
lightning bolt. Katrina jumps in response to the bolt. What are the US, UR, CS,
and CR in this example?

Principles of classical conditioning
Extinction
Higher-order conditioning
Stimulus generalization
Stimulus discrimination

Extinction
u The weakening and eventual
disappearance of a learned response
u In classical conditioning, it occurs
when the conditioned stimulus is no
longer paired with the unconditioned
stimulus.
u Spontaneous recovery
u Reappearance, after a pause, of
extinguished conditioned response

Higher-order conditioning
A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by
being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus generalization
u In classical conditioning, occurs when a new
stimulus that resembles the conditioned
stimulus elicits the conditioned response
u Pavlov demonstrated generalization by attaching miniature
vibrating devices to various parts of a dog’s body.
u After conditioning salivation based on stimulation of the dog’s
thigh, he stimulated other areas.

Stimulus discrimination
u The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar
stimuli
u Learned ability to distinguish between conditioned stimulus
(which predicts the unconditioned stimulus) and other
irrelevant stimuli

What is learned in classical
conditioning?
u For classical conditioning to be most effective, the stimulus
to be conditioned should precede the unconditioned
stimulus
u We learn that the first stimulus predicts the second

Applications of Classical Conditioning
u Classical conditioning can explain cravings
u Drug cravings: Classical conditioning may inform treatments for substance use disorder
u Food cravings: Classical conditioning makes avoiding sweets difficult
u Watson and Rayner applied classical conditioning principles in studies of “Little Albert” to
demonstrate fear conditioning
u After five days, the child’s startled fear reaction was generalized to sight of rabbit, dog, and
sealskin coat

Operant conditioning
u The process by which a response becomes more or
less likely to occur depending on its consequences
u Differentiating operant from classical conditioning
u Operant conditioning: association formed between
behavior and consequence
u Classical conditioning: association formed between two
stimuli (US and CS)

Consequences of behavior
u A neutral consequence neither
increases nor decreases the
probability that the response will
recur.
u Reinforcement: Makes a
behavior more likely to recur
u Punishment: Makes a behavior
less likely to recur

Types of Reinforcement
Operant
Conditioning Term
Description Examples
Positive reinforcement Add a desirable
stimulus
Pet a dog that comes when you call it;
pay someone for work done.
Negative
reinforcement
Remove an aversive
stimulus
Take painkillers to end pain; fasten
seat belt to end loud beeping.

Types of Punishment
Operant
Conditioning Term
Description Examples
Positive punishment Add an aversive
stimulus
Being given extra chores for
disobeying parents
Negative punishment Remove a desirable
stimulus
Have your keys taken away for
disobeying parents

Putting it together
u Positive vs. Negative
u Positive means to initiate/add a stimulus
u negative means to take away (cease) a stimulus
u Reinforcement vs. Punishment
u Reinforcement means the preceding behavior increases
u Punishment means the preceding behavior increases
Desirable Aversive
Add Positive
reinforcement
Positive punishment
Remove Negative
punishment
Negative
reinforcement

Operant Conditioning Examples
For each example below, decide whether the situation is most likely to describe positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement, positive punishment, or negative punishment. Hint:
First, distinguish the preceding behavior from the consequence that follows. Then, ask yourself
two questions about the consequence: Does the consequence involve adding or removing a
stimulus ? Is the stimulus desirable or aversive?
u Carrie experiences a reduction in stress at work after smoking a cigarette during a break.
u Sean gets spanked by his father after running into the street to retrieve a soccer ball.
u Thomas receives an “A” on an exam after studying hard.
u Sara’s headache goes away after taking Tylenol.
u Mary gets a sunburn after spending a day at the beach without sunscreen.
u Tim has his keys taken away after staying out after curfew.
u Linda takes out the trash so her husband Jim will stop nagging her about it.
Desirable Aversive
Add Positive reinforcement Positive punishment
Remove Negative punishment Negative reinforcement

Studying reinforcement: The
Skinner box

Primary vs. secondary
reinforcement/punishment
u Primary
reinforcers/punishments are
inherently
reinforcing/punishing
u Secondary (conditioned)
reinforcers/punishments are
stimuli that have acquired
reinforcing/punishing
properties through
associations with other
reinforcers/punishments

Principles of operant conditioning
Extinction – A behavior decreases when reinforcement is no
longer provided
Stimulus generalization – Tendency for a response that has
been reinforced/punished in one setting to occur (or be
suppressed) in similar situations
Stimulus discrimination – Learning that responses will only be
reinforced/punished under certain circumstances
Shaping - Reinforcers gradually guide behavior toward closer
and closer approximations of desired behavior

Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement Schedules
u Reinforcement schedule - pattern that defines how often a
response will be reinforced
u Continuous reinforcement schedule
uReinforces desired response every time it occurs
u Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule
uReinforces a response only some of the time
uResults in slower acquisition of response, but greater resistance to
extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
Fixed Variable
Ratio Every so many: reinforcement
after every nth behavior, such
as “buy 10 coffees, get 1 free,”
or pay workers per product unit
produced
After an unpredictable
number: reinforcement after a
random number of behaviors,
as when playing slot
machines
Interval Every so often: reinforcement
for behavior after a fixed time,
such as an allowance on
Sunday as long as one’s
bedroom is clean
Unpredictably often:
reinforcement for behavior
after a random amount of
time, as when checking our
phone for an email

When punishment works
u When it immediately follows the behavior
u When it is mild rather than harsh
u When it is consistent

When punishment fails
u When the recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage
u When it does not immediately follow the behavior
u When it does not inform the recipient how it might be
avoided in the future
u When a consequence thought to be a punishment proves
to be reinforcing

Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning
Basic idea Learning associations between events we
do not control.
Learning associations between our
behavior and its consequences.
Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on environment.
Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US
and becomes CS.
Associating a response with a
consequence (reinforcer or
punisher).
Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly
presented alone.
Responding decreases when
reinforcement stops.
Spontaneous
recovery
The reappearance, after a rest period, of
a weakened CR.
The reappearance, after a rest
period, of a weakened response.
Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli
similar to the CS.
Responses learned in one situation
occurring in other, similar situations.
Discrimination Learning to distinguish between a CS and
other stimuli that do not signal a US.
Learning that some responses, but
not others, will be reinforced.

Cognitive perspectives on learning
u Social learning theory: Learning can occur through
observation and imitation of others
u Observational learning (i.e., modeling) involves learning
new responses by observing the behavior of another (a
“model”) rather than from direct experience
u Vicarious reinforcement and punishment
u Powerfully demonstrated through the Bobo Doll
Experiment by Albert Bandura
u Suggests that parents, media, can have powerful
unintended effects on children’s social development

Cognitive perspectives on learning
u Cognitive processes such as interpretation of
consequences can change how a consequence affects
behavior
u Learning can be recast from cognitive perspective as
involving prediction and error correction
u Learning occurs when there is a difference between what is
expected to happen and what actually happens

The manufacture of memory
u Memory is the capacity to retain and retrieve
information
ui.e., learning that persists
u Memory is a reconstructive process
u Source misattribution- The inability to distinguish what you
originally experienced from what you heard or were told later
about an event

Models of Memory
u Information-processing
model
u Compares human memory to
computer operations
u Involves three processes:
u Encoding is defined as the initial
registration of information
u Storage refers to maintaining information
over time
u Retrieval is the ability to access information
when you need it
Encoding
StorageRetrieval

Three-stage model of memory
x

Sensory memory/register
u A memory system that momentarily preserves extremely
accurate images of sensory information
u Visual – iconic
u Auditory - echoic
u Information that is not quickly passed to working (short term)
memory is gone forever

Working (Short-term) memory
u A limited capacity memory system involved
in the retention of information for brief
periods
oWorking memory – example: does 2 x (3+5)/4=4?
oThe leaky bucket
u Chunk- Meaningful unit of information composed
of smaller units
u “Silver begun wrongs cloud well dont two” vs “vresli
uegbn gsornw cdoul lwle ntod wto”
u On average, working memory can hold 7 plus-or-
minus 2 items/chunks

Working (Short-term) memory
u Frontal lobes, especially the prefrontal cortex, are
heavily involved in working memory

Long-term memory
u The memory system
involved in the long-
term storage of
information
u No apparent limit to
its capacity
u Can last forever
u Organized into
implicit and explicit
memory

Explicit (declarative) memory
u Conscious, intentional recollection of an event or
information.
u Recall: The ability to retrieve and reproduce from memory previously
learned material
u Recognition: The ability to identify previously encountered material
u Two types
u Semantic memories: General knowledge, including facts, rules, concepts
u Episodic memories: Events/experiences

Explicit (declarative) memory
u Hippocampus temporarily
stores semantic and
episodic memories
u Memories migrate to cerebral
cortex for long term storage
(memory consolidation)

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory
u Unconscious retention in memory
u Three types
u Priming - associations activated without our awareness
u Classical conditioning
u Procedural memories
e.g., being able to ride a bike

OU
Measuring Implicit Memory
Priming: A person reads or
listens to information and is
later tested to see whether
the information affects
performance on another
type of task
Example:
1. Person is shown a word
2. Person is later shown a
part of a word
3. Person is asked to
complete the fragment,
and is more likely to do so
with the word shown
earlier
TOURT R

Implicit (nondeclarative) memory
uCerebellum processes
and stores associations
learned through
classical conditioning
uBasal ganglia help
acquire/execute motor
skills

Role of emotion in memory
u Amygdala initiates biological
process for strengthening memory
for emotionally salient events
u Vivid, long lasting flashbulb
memories may result
u May also produce tunnel vision
memory, where information beyond
key features of the event may be lost

Long-Term Potentiation
u Long-term potentiation (LTP):
physical basis for learning and
memory
u Repeatedly activating a neural circuit
leads to enhanced synaptic transmission
within the circuit
u Increase in production of neurotransmitters in
the circuit
u Increase in synaptic connections within the
circuit
u In a nutshell, neurons that fire together
wire together

Memory Formation
u Shallow vs. deep processing
u Maintenance rehearsal: rote repetition of material in order to maintain its
availability in memory
u Is shallow processing, less likely that memory persists
u Elaborative rehearsal: association of new information with already stored
knowledge
u Is deep processing, more likely that memory persists

Memory Retrieval
u Memories are held in storage by a web of associations
u Retrieval cues aid in “opening” memories
u Encoding specificity principle - Cues and contexts specific to a
particular memory will be most effective in helping recall.
u Context-dependent memory
u Recall is improved when contexts present at encoding and at retrieval are same
u State-dependent memory
u Recall is improved when psychological or biological state present at encoding and at
retrieval are the same
u Example: mood-congruent memory

Memory Retrieval
u Mnemonics
u Strategies for improving memory, such as a list of items where
order is important
uPEMDAS: Please excuse my dear aunt Sally
uROY G. BIV
uHOMES

Memory Retrieval
u Serial position effect
u Tendency to recall best the last (recency
effect) and first (primacy effect) items in
a list

When Do We Forget?
u Forgetting can occur at any memory
stage
u When we process information, we
filter, alter, or lose much of it
u Forgetting has several causes:
u Encoding failure
u Storage decay
u Retrieval failure
u Interference
u Motivated forgetting – unconsciously
forgetting unwanted memories

Forgetting: Encoding Failure and Storage Decay
u Encoding failure
u Insufficient processing during encoding stage
u Storage decay
u Forgetting is rapid initially, but then levels off
u Gradual fading of physical “memory trace” in brain
u Long term depression (LTD): Weaking of memory circuits over time (“fire apart, wire
apart”)

Storage Decay

Forgetting: Retrieval Failure and Interference
u Retrieval failure
u Insufficient retrieval cues to access memories (cue-dependent
forgetting)
u Example: “tip-of-the-tongue” phenomenon
u Interference
u Proactive: Older memories make it difficult to remember new
information
u Retroactive: New learning disrupts memory for older information

Amnesia
u Partial or total loss of explicit memory (but implicit memories often
not affected)
u Anterograde amnesia
u Inability to form new memories (after the event that caused amnesia)
u Retrograde amnesia
u Inability to remember information from one’s past (before the event that caused
amnesia)

Memory Construction Errors: Misinformation
u Memories are constructed and capable of revision
(reconsolidation).
u Misinformation effect: Memory is corrupted by misleading
information.

Thinking: Basic Concepts
u Cognition
u All mental activities associated with thinking,
knowing, remembering, and communicating
u Metacognition
u Cognition about our cognition; keeping track
of and evaluating our mental processes
u Concept
u Mental representation of a group of similar
objects, events, ideas, people, etc.
u Prototype
u Mental image or best example of a category.
Used for assigning items to categories.
Golden
retriever
DOG
Cocker
spaniel
Border
collie

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles
u Algorithm
u Methodical, logical rule, or procedure that
guarantees a solution to a problem
u E.g., try every possible order of letters (907,200
possibilities)
u Heuristic
u Simpler thinking strategy that is usually speedier
than an algorithm, but also more error-prone
u E.g., group letters that often appear in order (CH, GY),
exclude letters that rarely appear in order (YY, LP)
u Insight
u Abrupt solution
u Not strategy-based, is a sudden flash of inspiration
SOLPGO
CYYH

Problem Solving: Strategies and Obstacles
u Confirmation bias
u Predisposes us to verify rather than challenge
our hypotheses
u Example: sugar-hyperactivity belief
u Mental set (fixation)
u Is the tendency to approach a problem with
previously successful mindset

Example of mental set
Connect all 9 dots.Connect all 9 dots.
Use only 4 lines.Use only 4 lines.
Do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawing.Do not lift your pencil from the page after you begin drawing.