IntComp Reviewer

Introduction to Computing

INTRODUCTION TO

COMPUTER

What is computer?

• An electronic machine that can store and

process information. It is defined as

stored program digital computing

system.

• A Computer is an electronic device of

wires, transistors, circuits, instructions,

and data can transmit, store and

manipulate information.

• A Computer is a machine that accepts

data and processes that data (data may be

numbers, letters or both or even sounds).

• A computer accepts information using an

input device.

History of Computer

The computer as we know it today had its

beginning with a 19thcentury English

mathematics professor named Charles Babbage.

Computer Generations

First Generation 1946 - 1958

The first computers used vacuum tubes for

circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and

were often enormous, taking up entire rooms.

They were very expensive to operate and in

addition to using a great deal of electricity,

generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause

of malfunctions. Input was based on punched

cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on

printouts.

Second Generation 1959 - 1964

Transistors replaced the vacuum tubes and

ushered in the second generation of computers.

One transistor replaced the equivalent of 40

vacuum tubes. Allowing computers to become

smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient

and more reliable.

Third Generation 1965 - 1970

The development of the integrated circuit was the

hallmark of the third generation of computers.

Transistors were miniaturized and placed on

silicon chips, called semiconductors, which

drastically increased the speed and efficiency of

computers. Much smaller and cheaper compare to

the second generation computers. It could carry

out instructions in billionths of a second.

Computers for the first time became accessible to

a mass audience because they were smaller and

cheaper than their predecessors.

The Fourth Generation 1971 - today

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation

of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits

were built onto a single silicon chip. As these

small computers became more powerful, they

could be linked together to form networks, which

eventually led to the development of the Internet.

Fifth Generation Today to future

Based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). Still in

development. The use of parallel processing and

superconductors is helping to make artificial

intelligence a reality. The goal is to develop

devices that respond to natural language input and

are capable of learning and self-organization.

There are some applications, such as voice

recognition, that are being used today.

A tally stick was an ancient memory aid device

to record and document numbers, quantities, or

even messages.

The abacus is an ancient calculating tool used for

performing arithmetic operations, consisting of

beads that slide along rods or wires it was

invented in Babylonia in 2400 B.C., first use in

China around 500 B.C.

Napier’s Bones

Invented by John Napier in 1614. Allowed the

operator to multiply, divide and calculate square

and cube roots by moving the rods around and

placing them in specially constructed boards.

Slide Rule

Invented by William Oughtred in 1622. Used

primarily for multiplication, division, root,

logarithms, Trigonometry. Not normally used for

addition or subtraction.

Introduction to Computing

Pascaline

Invented by Blaise Pascal in 1642. It was its

limitation to addition and subtraction it is also too

expensive.

Stepped Reckoner

Invented by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1672.

The machine that can add, subtract, multiply and

divide automatically.

Jacquard Loom

It is a mechanical loom, invented by Joseph-

Marie Jacquard in 1881. It an automatic loom

controlled by punched cards.

Arithmometer

A mechanical calculator invented by Thomas de

Colmar in 1820, The first reliable, useful and

commercially successful calculating machine.

The machine could perform the four basic

mathematic functions. The first mass-produced

calculating machine.

The Difference Engine was a mechanical

calculator designed by Charles Babbage in the

1822 to perform polynomial calculations and

generate mathematical tables.

The Analytical Engine, also designed by

Babbage in 1834, was an advanced mechanical

general-purpose computer that featured

components like an arithmetic unit, control flow,

and memory, making it the conceptual

predecessor to modern computers.

First Computer Programmer

In 1840, Augusta Ada Byron suggests to Babbage

that he use the binary system. She writes

programs for the Analytical Engine.

Scheutzian Calculation Engine

Invented by Per Georg Scheutz in 1843. Based on

Charles Babbage's difference engine. The first

printing calculator.

Tabulating Machine

Invented by Herman Hollerith in 1890. To assist

in summarizing information and accounting.

Havard Mark 1

Also known as IBM Automatic Sequence

Controlled Calculator (ASCC). Invented by

Howard H. Aiken in 1943 The first electromechanical

computer.

Z1

The first programmable computer. Created by

Konrad Zuse in Germany from 1936 to 1938. To

program the Z1 required that the user insert punch

tape into a punch tape reader and all output was

also generated through punch tape.

Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC)

It was the first electronic digital computing

device. Invented by Professor John Atanasoff an

graduate student Clifford Berry at Iowa State

University between 1939 and 1942.

ENIAC

Stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and

Computer. It was the first electronic generalpurpose

computer. Completed in 1946.

Developed by John Prespe Eckert and John W.

Mauchl.

UNIVAC 1

The UNIVAC I (UNIVersal Automatic Computer

1) was the first commercial computer. Developed

in the United States by the company Remington

Ran in year 1951. Designed by J. Presper Eckert

and John Mauchly.

EDVAC

Stands for Electronic Discrete Variable

Automatic Computer. The First Stored Program

Computer Designed by Von Neumann in 1952. It

has a memory to hold both stored program as well

as data.

The First Portable Computer

Osborne 1 – the first portable computer. Released

in 1981 by the Osborne Computer Corporation.

Introduction to Computing

The First Computer Company

The first computer company was the Electronic

Controls Company. Founded in 1949 by J.

Presper Eckert and John Mauchly.

Classification of Computers

Computers differ based on their data processing

abilities. They are classified according to

purpose, data handling, and functionality.

• Analog Computers: It accepts analog

input and provides analog output

information. It represents physical

quantities like acceleration, temperature,

distance or voltages in mechanical or

electrical circuits and does not need any

storage device. Examples of the analog

computer are thermometer, speedometer

and analog clock.

• Digital Computer: This computer

accepts digital input and provides digital

output after processing information and

the operation are in a binary system of 0

and 1. By manipulating the binary digits

and numbers it can perform any task like

analyze data, mathematical calculations

etc. Examples of digital computers are

Apple Macintosh, IBM PC.

• Hybrid Computer: This computer is the

combination of both analog and digital

computers in terms of speed and

accuracy. Hybrid computers can measure

physical and digital quantities. Examples

of the hybrid computer are the machine

measure heartbeat in hospital, devices

installed fuel pumps.

Types of Computer

Super Computer - The fastest and most powerful

type of computer Supercomputers are very

expensive and are employed for specialized

applications that require immense amounts of

mathematical calculations.

Mainframe Computer - A very large and

expensive computer that is capable of supporting

hundreds or even thousands of users

simultaneously.

Mini Computer - A midsized computer called

minicomputers lie between workstations and

mainframes.

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

• Desktop Computer: a personal or

micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a

desk.

• Laptop Computer: a portable computer

complete with an integrated screen and

keyboard. It is generally smaller in size

than a desktop computer and larger than

a notebook computer.

Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized

computer. Palmtops have no keyboard but the

screen serves both as an input and output device.

What is Computer Memory?

The computer memory is a storage area inside the

computer system. Memory is mainly divided into

two types: Primary memory is computer

memory that a processor or computer accesses

first or directly. Secondary memory is where

programs and data are kept on a long-term basis.

Primary memory - is the computer's main

storage, used to temporarily store data and

instructions that are actively being used by the

CPU for quick access.

• RAM (Random Access Memory) is a

type of volatile primary memory that

temporarily stores data and instructions

for the CPU, allowing for quick access

and processing during active tasks.

• ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of

non- volatile memory that permanently

stores firmware and essential instructions

for booting up the computer, which

cannot be modified or written to easily.

Types of ROM

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) - is

a type of memory that can be programmed once

to store permanent data, and it cannot be changed

afterward.

Introduction to Computing

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory

(EPROM) - is a type of memory that can be

programmed and erased multiple times using

ultraviolet light, making it reusable for storing

data.

Secondary memory - is a type of storage that

retains data permanently, providing long-term

storage for files and applications, and includes

devices like hard drives, solid-state drives, and

optical disks.

Hard drive - is a storage device that uses magnetic

disks to permanently store digital data .

Optical disk - is a storage medium that uses laser

technology to read and write data, commonly

used in CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs for storing

music, videos, and software.

Flash Disk - A storage module made of flash

memory chips.

Magnetic tape - is a storage medium that uses a

plastic strip coated with magnetic material to

record data, often used for backups and archiving.

Floppy disks are portable storage devices that

use a flexible magnetic disk to store data,

commonly used before modern storage methods

became popular.

CDs (Compact Discs) are optical storage media

that use laser technology to read and write data,

typically used for storing music, software, and

other digital information.

CPU Central Processing Unit - is brain of a

computer. It is responsible for all functions and

processes.

The three commonly used types of CDs are:

1. CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only

Memory): A pre-recorded disc that

contains data that can be read but not

modified or erased.

2. CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): A

writable disc that allows users to record

data once; it cannot be erased or

rewritten.

3. CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): A

rewritable disc that enables users to

record, erase, and rewrite data multiple

times.

Computer Components

Hardware is the physical parts of a computer

system that perform computing functions.

Input devices - any peripheral (piece of computer

hardware equipment to provide data and control

signals to an information processing system such

as a computer or other information appliance.

1. Monitor

2. Modem

3. System Unit

4. Mouse

5. Speaker

6. Printer

7. Keyboard

CPU Central Processing Unit - is brain of a

computer. It is responsible for all functions and

processes.

The CPU is comprised of three main parts:

- Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) - is a

component of the CPU that performs

arithmetic operations (like addition and

subtraction) and logical operations (such as

comparisons).

- Control Unit (CU) - is a part of the CPU that

directs and coordinates the operations of the

computer by interpreting and executing

- instructions from memory.

Registers - is a small, high-speed storage location

in the CPU used to hold data and instructions

temporarily during processing.

Introduction to Computing

Software is what allows you to perform tasks on

your computer. It can be divided into two main

categories:

System software is a type of software designed

to manage and control computer hardware and

provide a platform for running application

software.

OPERATING SYSTEM

What is an Operating System?

- The operating system is the most important

software on your computer.

Windows:

• Developed by Microsoft, Windows is one of

the most widely used operating systems

globally, known for its user-friendly interface

and extensive software compatibility.

• Versions include Windows 10, Windows 11,

etc.

macOS:

• Developed by Apple, macOS is designed for

Mac computers and is known for its sleek

design, stability, and integration with other

Apple products.

• Recent versions include macOS Monterey

and macOS Ventura.

Linux:

• An open-source operating system that is

highly customizable and widely used in

servers, embedded systems, and as a desktop

OS.

• Distributions include Ubuntu, Fedora, and

CentOS.

Device Drivers - Allow the operating system to

communicate with hardware devices.

Utility Software - Provides maintenance and

optimization tools.

- Antivirus Software: Norton, McAfee,

Bitdefender, Windows Defender

- Backup Software: Acronis True Image,

Time Machine (macOS)

- Disk Cleanup Tools: CCleaner, Disk

Cleanup

Firmware – Low level of software embedded in

hardware to control specific function.

- BIOS/UEFI Firmware: BIOS for older

PCs, UEFI for modern PCs

- Embedded Systems Firmware:

Firmware in routers, printers, and

embedded devices

Application software is designed to perform

specific tasks for users, such as word processing

or graphic design, and includes programs like

Microsoft Office and web browsers.

Productivity Software: Helps users create, edit,

and manage documents and data.

- Word Processing: Microsoft Word, Google

Docs

- Spreadsheets: Microsoft Excel, Google

Sheets

- Presentation Software: Microsoft

PowerPoint, Google Slides

Web Browser: Allows users to access and

interact with contents on the web.

Media Players: plays audio and video files

Graphic and Design Software: Used for

creating and editing images and designs.

- Photo Editing: Adobe Photoshop, GIMP

- Vector Graphics: Adobe Illustrator,

CorelDRAW

- 3D Modeling: Blender, Autodesk Maya

Communication Software : Facilitates

communication and collaboration.

- Email Clients: Microsoft Outlook, Gmail

- Messaging Apps: WhatsApp, Discord,

Microsoft Teams

- Video Conferencing: Zoom, Microsoft

Teams

Games and Entertainment Software: Provides

entertainment through interactive experiences.

Introduction to Computing

Development tools: Helps developers write,

debug, manage code, create games, softwares and

applications.

- Integrated Development

Environments (IDEs): Visual Studio,

Eclipse

- Code Editors: Sublime Text, VS Code

- Game Engines: Unreal Engine, Unity,

GMS2, GODOT, RPGMAKER MV-MZ

Networking Basic

A computer network is a group of interconnected

computers that can share resources, such as files,

applications, and internet access, enabling

communication and data exchange.

Types of Networks

1. Local Area Network (LAN):

- A LAN connects computers and devices

within a limited geographical area, such as a

home, office, or school. It typically offers

high data transfer rates and low latency,

enabling fast communication and resource

sharing.

2. Wide Area Network (WAN):

- A WAN covers a larger geographical area,

connecting multiple LANs, cities, or

countries. It typically uses public or leased

telecommunication lines, and examples

include the internet and corporate networks.

Other Types of Networks:

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

Covers a city or a large campus, connecting

multiple LANs within that area.

• Personal Area Network (PAN): A small

network for personal devices, typically

within a range of a few meters (e.g.,

connecting smartphones, tablets, and

laptops).

Networking Hardware

1. Router- A device that connects different

networks and directs data packets between

them. Routers determine the best path for

data to travel and can also provide security

features, such as firewalls.

2. Switch-A networking device that connects

devices within a LAN, allowing them to

communicate with each other. Switches

operate at the data link layer and use MAC

addresses to forward data only to the intended

recipient.

3. Access Point- A device that allows wireless

devices to connect to a wired network using

Wi-Fi. It acts as a bridge between the wireless

network and the wired network.

4. Modem- A device that modulates and

demodulates signals for data transmission

over telephone lines or cable systems. It

connects a local network to the internet.

The Internet

The Internet is a global network of interconnected

computers and devices that communicate using

standardized protocols, allowing users to share

information, access services, and connect with

others across the world.

History of the Internet

1. Origins (1960s-1970s):

The Internet's origins trace back to ARPANET,

created by the U.S. Department of Defense in

1969 to facilitate research sharing among

universities and institutions. The first successful

message over ARPANET was also sent that year.

2. Development of Protocols (1970s-1980s):

In the 1970s, the Transmission Control Protocol

(TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) were developed,

creating rules for data transmission. Together,

TCP/IP became the standard for connecting

networks, leading to the term "Internet."

3. Growth and Expansion (1980s-1990s):

In the 1980s, the National Science Foundation

(NSF) NSFNET expanded Internet access by

connecting academic networks. In the early

Introduction to Computing

1990s, Tim Berners-Lee revolutionized online

information sharing with the World Wide Web,

making it accessible through web browsers.

4. Commercialization and Popularization

(1990s-Present):

The Internet became commercially available in

the mid-1990s, spurring rapid growth in websites,

online services, and e-commerce. By the late

1990s and early 2000s, it became essential to

daily life for millions globally.

WEB BROWSER

are software applications that allow users to

access and interact with content on the World

Wide Web. They interpret and display web pages,

enabling users to navigate the Internet, view

multimedia content, and utilize web applications.

Functions of Web Browsers

1. Rendering Web Pages: Browsers

convert HTML, CSS, and JavaScript into

visually formatted pages.

2. Navigation: Users can navigate the web

by entering URLs, using bookmarks, and

following hyperlinks.

3. Security Features: Browsers provide

security measures, such as HTTPS

support, pop-up blockers, and phishing

protection.

4. Extensions and Add-ons: Users can

enhance browser functionality through

various extensions and add-ons.

5. Privacy Settings: Browsers offer

features to manage cookies, tracking, and

browsing history.

Differences Between Popular Browsers

Google Chrome is fast and has a vast extension

library, but raises privacy concerns. Mozilla

Firefox emphasizes privacy and customization,

while Safari is optimized for Apple devices,

offering a seamless user experience and strong

privacy features.

WEB TECHNOLOGIES

HTML (HyperText Markup Language)

HTML is the foundational markup language

used to create the structure of web pages.

CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)

CSS is a stylesheet language used to control the

presentation and layout of HTML elements.

JavaScript

JavaScript is a dynamic scripting language that

adds interactivity and functionality to web pages.

When creating a website, HTML provides the

structure, CSS enhances the visual appearance,

and JavaScript adds interactivity. Together, they

create a seamless user experience, allowing for

engaging and functional web applications.

Search engines operate by crawling the web to

index content, which allows them to retrieve

relevant information when users perform

searches. The process typically involves three key

steps:

1. Crawling: Search engines use automated

bots (also known as spiders or crawlers)

to browse the web, discovering and

gathering data from web pages.

2. Indexing: The collected data is

organized and stored in a massive

database, known as an index. This index

enables quick retrieval of information

when users search for specific terms.

3. Retrieving Results: When a user

submits a query, the search engine

processes the request and retrieves

relevant results from its index, ranking

them based on relevance and quality.

Algorithms

Search engines use complex algorithms to

determine the ranking of web pages in search

results. These algorithms consider numerous

factors, including:

• Relevance: How closely the content

matches the user's query.

Introduction to Computing

• Quality: The credibility and authority of

the source, often influenced by backlinks

and user engagement.

• User Experience: Factors like page load

speed, mobile-friendliness, and overall

usability.

• Freshness: The recency of the content,

with newer information often prioritized

for certain queries.

Tips for Effective Searching

1. Use Specific Keywords: Be as specific

as possible with your search terms to

yield more relevant results.

2. Use Quotation Marks: For exact

phrases, use quotation marks to search

for the exact sequence of words (e.g.,

"climate change").

3. Utilize Advanced Search Operators:

Familiarize yourself with operators like

AND, OR, and NOT to refine your

searches.

4. Explore Search Filters: Use filters

(such as time, location, and content type)

provided by search engines to narrow

results.

5. Check Source Credibility: Assess the

reliability of the sources before trusting

the information presented in search

results.

WEB DEVELOPMENT

Web development involves the creation and

maintenance of websites and web applications. It

encompasses various tasks, from designing user

interfaces to managing server-side logic and

databases. Web development can be categorized

into two main areas: front-end and back-end

development.

Front-End Development

Front-end development focuses on the client side

of web applications—the parts users interact

with directly. Key components include:

• HTML (HyperText Markup

Language): Structures the content of

web pages.

• CSS (Cascading Style Sheets): Styles

the visual elements, such as layout,

colors, and fonts.

• JavaScript: Adds interactivity and

dynamic features, enhancing user

experience through functionalities like

form validation and animations.

Front-end developers ensure that websites are

visually appealing, responsive, and user-friendly

across different devices.

Back-End Development

Back-end development pertains to the server

side of web applications, where data processing

and application logic occur. Key components

include:

• Server-Side Languages: Common

languages include Python, Ruby, PHP,

Java, and Node.js, which handle requests

and server operations.

• Databases: Systems like MySQL,

PostgreSQL, and MongoDB store and

manage data efficiently.

• Web Servers: Software such as Apache

or Nginx manages HTTP requests and

serves web content to users.

Back-end developers ensure the server,

application, and database work together

seamlessly, managing tasks like user

authentication and data retrieval.

Online Safety and Security

Understanding Online Threats

Online threats can take various forms, posing

risks to individuals and organizations. Common

types of online threats include:

1. Malware: Malicious software, such as

viruses, worms, and ransomware,

designed to damage or disrupt devices

and networks.

2. Phishing: Deceptive attempts to trick

users into revealing sensitive

Introduction to Computing

information, like passwords or credit

card details, often through fraudulent

emails or websites.

3. Hacking: Unauthorized access to

systems or networks, often to steal data

or cause damage.

4. Identity Theft: The unauthorized use of

someone's personal information to

commit fraud or other crimes.

Cybersecurity Basics

Cybersecurity involves protecting systems,

networks, and data from cyber threats. Key

concepts include:

• Firewalls: Security systems that monitor

and control incoming and outgoing

network traffic based on predetermined

security rules.

• Encryption: The process of encoding

data to prevent unauthorized access

during transmission or storage.

• Antivirus Software: Programs designed

to detect and remove malware from

devices.

• Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): A

security measure that requires users to

provide multiple forms of verification

before accessing an account.

Best Practices for Safe Browsing

To enhance online safety, consider the following

best practices:

1. Use Strong Passwords: Create complex

passwords with a mix of letters, numbers,

and symbols, and change them regularly.

2. Be Cautious with Links and

Attachments: Avoid clicking on

suspicious links or downloading

attachments from unknown sources.

3. Keep Software Updated: Regularly

update your operating system, browsers,

and security software to protect against

vulnerabilities.

4. Use Secure Connections: Ensure

websites are secure (look for "https://" in

the URL) and avoid using public Wi-Fi

for sensitive transactions.

5. Educate Yourself: Stay informed about

the latest online threats and cybersecurity

trends to recognize potential risks.

The Internet and Media

The Internet is a global network of interconnected

computers and servers that enables the exchange

of data and information across vast distances. It

operates on standardized protocols, allowing

different devices to communicate seamlessly. The

Internet comprises millions of websites,

applications, and services that facilitate

communication, information sharing, and

commerce.

Significance in Modern Society

The Internet has transformed nearly every aspect

of daily life and plays a crucial role in modern

society:

1. Communication: It has made it easier

for individuals and organizations to

connect globally.

2. Access to Information: This has

democratized information access and

empowered self-directed learning.

3. Commerce: Online shopping, digital

payment systems, and services have

transformed traditional retail and created

new economic opportunities.

4. Social Interaction: This has led to the

rise of digital activism and global

movements.

5. Entertainment: It offers endless choices

and personalized experiences.

6. Innovation and Development: The

Internet has driven technological

advancements and innovation, enabling

the development of new applications,

services, and industries.

Types of Media

Media plays a vital role in shaping public

opinion, disseminating information, and

providing entertainment. It can be broadly

Introduction to Computing

categorized into digital media, traditional media,

and social media, each with distinct

characteristics and formats.

1. Digital Media

Digital media encompasses any content that is

created, stored, and distributed in digital form.

This includes:

• Websites and Blogs: Platforms for sharing

information, articles, and personal insights.

• Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix

and YouTube that provide video and audio

content on-demand.

• Podcasts: Digital audio files that users can

stream or download, covering various topics

and genres.

• E-books and Online Magazines: Digital

versions of books and periodicals that are

accessible on various devices.

Significance: Digital media allows for instant

access to information and entertainment, often

enabling user interaction and engagement.

2. Traditional Media

Traditional media refers to conventional forms of

mass communication that have existed before the

digital age. This includes:

• Television (TV): A widely used medium for

broadcasting news, entertainment, and

educational content to a broad audience.

• Radio: Audio broadcasts that provide news,

music, and talk shows, often accessible

through AM, FM, or digital platforms.

• Print Media: Newspapers, magazines,

brochures, and other printed materials that

disseminate information to the public.

Significance: Traditional media has historically

been a primary source of information and

entertainment, often reaching large audiences

through established channels.

3. Social Media

Social media refers to online platforms that

enable users to create, share, and interact with

content and each other. Examples include:

• Social Networking Sites: Platforms like

Facebook, Instagram, and LinkedIn that

allow users to connect and share personal

updates.

• Microblogging Sites: Services like Twitter

that facilitate short, rapid exchanges of

information and ideas.

• Content Sharing Platforms: Sites like

TikTok and Pinterest that focus on sharing

visual content and creative projects.

Significance: Social media has transformed how

people communicate and engage with content,

fostering real-time interactions and communitybuilding

across diverse interests.

The Computer and Mobile Devices

Mobile devices are portable electronic devices

designed for communication, information access,

and various applications. They typically have

touchscreen interfaces, compact designs, and the

capability to connect to the Internet through

cellular networks or Wi-Fi.

Types of Computer

Desktops

are stationary computers designed for regular use

at a single location. They consist of separate

components, including a monitor, keyboard,

mouse, and a central processing unit (CPU)

housed in a tower or case.

Laptops

are portable computers that integrate all

components (monitor, keyboard, touchpad, and

CPU) into a single unit, making them easy to

carry and use in various locations.

Introduction to Computing

Types of Mobile Devices

1. Smartphones:

Multifunctional devices that combine the features

of a mobile phone with advanced computing

capabilities.

Examples include Apple iPhone, Samsung

Galaxy, and Google Pixel.

2. Tablets:

Larger than smartphones, tablets provide a bigger

display for reading, browsing, and media

consumption.

Examples include Apple iPad, Samsung Galaxy

Tab, and Microsoft Surface.

3. Wearables:

Devices worn on the body that often track health

and fitness metrics or provide notifications.

Examples include Apple Watch, Fitbit, and

Google Glass.

Differences Between Mobile Devices and

Computers

1. Portability:

Mobile devices are designed for portability and

can easily be carried and used on the go, while

traditional computers (desktops and laptops) are

typically bulkier and less convenient to transport.

2. User Interface:

Mobile devices primarily use touchscreen

interfaces, while computers generally rely on

keyboard and mouse input, although touchscreen

computers are becoming more common.

3. Operating Systems:

Mobile devices usually run on specialized

operating systems such as iOS (Apple) and

Android (Google), optimized for touch

interactions. Computers often use operating

systems like Windows, macOS, or Linux,

designed for more extensive multitasking and

processing capabilities.

4. Functionality:

While mobile devices can perform many tasks,

computers generally offer greater processing

power, storage capacity, and the ability to run

more complex software applications, making

them suitable for tasks like programming, video

editing, and graphic design.

5. Connectivity:

Mobile devices often have cellular connectivity,

allowing them to function independently of Wi-Fi

networks, whereas computers usually rely on

wired or Wi-Fi connections for Internet access.

The Program and Application

Types of Application Software

Refers to programs designed to help users perform

specific tasks. Here are some common types of

application software:

1. Word Processing Software

Software used for creating, editing, and formatting

text documents.

• Example: Microsoft Word

2. Spreadsheet Software

Programs that allow users to organize, analyze, and

manipulate data in tabular form.

• Example: Microsoft Excel

3. Presentation Software

Tools used to create visual presentations for meetings,

lectures, or educational purposes.

• Example: Microsoft PowerPoint

4. Database Software

Applications used to create, manage, and manipulate

databases for storing and retrieving data.

• Example: Microsoft Access

5. Graphics and Design Software

Programs used for creating and editing images,

illustrations, and designs.

• Example: Adobe Photoshop

Introduction to Computing

6. Web Browsers

Software applications that enable users to access and

navigate the internet.

• Example: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox

7.Communication Software

Applications designed to facilitate communication

between users through various means.

• Example: Email Clients (e.g., Microsoft

Outlook) and Messaging Apps (e.g., Slack)

Software Updates and Maintenance

Importance of Keeping Software Updated

Regular software updates are crucial for maintaining

the performance, security, and functionality of

devices and applications. Key benefits include:

1. Security Improvements: Updates often

include patches that fix vulnerabilities,

protecting systems from malware, hacking,

and other cyber threats.

2. Bug Fixes: Updates address software bugs

and glitches, improving stability and

reducing crashes or errors.

3. New Features and Enhancements: Updates

can introduce new features, improve existing

ones, and enhance the overall user

experience.

4. Compatibility: Keeping software updated

ensures compatibility with new hardware,

other software, and evolving standards.

How to Check for Updates

1. Operating System Updates:

For Windows, go to Settings > Update & Security

> Windows Update and click Check for updates.

For macOS, open the Apple menu > System

Preferences > Software Update.

For mobile devices (iOS/Android), go to Settings

> System > Software Update.

2. Application Updates:

Most software has a built-in update feature. For

example, in Microsoft Office, go to File >

Account > Update Options.

For apps downloaded from app stores (e.g.,

Google Play, App Store), updates can be managed

directly from the store.

3. Automatic Updates:

Enabling automatic updates ensures that software

is always up-to-date without manual intervention,

providing ongoing protection and new features.

Maintenance Practices

1. Regular Backups: Regularly back up

important files and data to protect against

data loss due to software issues or

cyberattacks.

2. Disk Cleanup: Remove unnecessary files

and uninstall unused applications to free

up storage space and improve system

performance.

3. Antivirus Scans: Perform regular

antivirus and malware scans to identify

and remove any potential threats.

4. System Performance Monitoring: Use

tools to monitor system performance and

resource usage, and address issues like

overheating or memory overload.

5. Update Drivers: Keep hardware drivers

updated to ensure compatibility and

proper functioning of peripherals like

printers and graphics cards.

Programming Languages

Introduction

Programming languages are formal languages

used to write instructions that a computer can

execute. They allow developers to create software

applications, from simple scripts to complex

systems, by providing a structured way to

communicate with computers. Each

programming language has unique features that

make it suitable for specific tasks.

Introduction to Computing

Role in Developing Software Applications

Programming languages play a crucial role in

software development by enabling developers to:

• Write Code: Create instructions for

computers to perform tasks, process data, and

execute operations.

• Solve Problems: Implement algorithms and

logic to solve various computational

problems.

• Create Applications: Develop a wide range

of software applications, including web

applications, mobile apps, games, and

embedded systems.

Examples of Programming Languages

1. Python

Overview: Python is a high-level, generalpurpose

programming language known for its

readability and simplicity. It has a vast library of

tools and frameworks, making it suitable for web

development, data analysis, automation, and

artificial intelligence.

Use Cases: Web development (Django, Flask),

data science, machine learning, automation

scripts.

2. Java

Overview: Java is an object-oriented

programming language that is widely used for

building cross-platform applications. Its "write

once, run anywhere" capability makes it popular

for enterprise software, mobile apps, and largescale

systems.

Use Cases: Android app development, enterprise

applications, web services, server-side

programming.

3. C++

Overview: C++ is an extension of the C

programming language and is known for its

performance and control over system resources.

It is often used in systems programming, game

development, and applications requiring high

performance.

Use Cases: Game development, system software,

embedded systems, performance-critical

applications.

User Interface Design

Basics of Designing User-Friendly

Applications

User Interface (UI) design focuses on creating

visually appealing and functional interfaces that

provide a smooth user experience. The goal is to

make it easy for users to interact with the

application and achieve their objectives without

frustration. Here are some key principles of userfriendly

UI design:

1. Simplicity: The interface should be

intuitive and straightforward, avoiding

unnecessary elements. A clean design

helps users focus on the main tasks

without distraction.

2. Consistency: Maintaining consistent

visual elements (such as colors, fonts,

and layout) across the application helps

users learn and navigate more easily.

Familiar icons and controls also

contribute to a consistent experience.

3. Visibility and Feedback: Important

information and controls should be easily

visible to users. The interface should

provide feedback to inform users that

their actions have been recognized (e.g.,

confirmation messages, loading

indicators).

4. Accessibility: Design should consider

diverse user needs, including those with

disabilities. This includes using readable

fonts, high contrast, and providing

alternatives like screen reader support.

5. Navigation: Clear and predictable

navigation helps users move through the

application without confusion. Menus,

links, and buttons should be easy to

locate and understand.

6. Error Prevention and Recovery:

Interfaces should minimize the risk of

errors by providing constraints and clear

instructions. When errors occur, users

Introduction to Computing

should receive helpful messages to

recover from them.

Importance of Usability

Usability is a crucial aspect of user interface

design and directly affects how successfully users

can interact with the application. Key reasons

usability is important include:

1. Improved User Experience: A welldesigned

interface that is easy to use

enhances user satisfaction, making users

more likely to continue using the

application.

2. Efficiency: User-friendly applications

allow users to accomplish tasks quickly

and accurately, improving productivity.

3. Reduced Learning Curve: A simple and

consistent interface helps new users learn

the system faster, minimizing the time

and effort required to become proficient.

4. Fewer Errors: Good UI design helps

prevent user errors, reducing frustration

and improving overall system reliability.

5. Increased Engagement: Applications

that are easy to navigate and visually

appealing are more engaging, leading to

increased usage and retention rates.

Inside Computer and Mobile devices

Components Inside Computers and Mobile

Devices

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU, often called the "brain" of the device,

is responsible for executing instructions and

performing calculations. It manages all the

processes needed for running software and

responding to user commands.

In computers, CPUs are typically more powerful,

with multiple cores for handling heavy

multitasking.

In mobile devices, CPUs (often referred to as SoC

- System on Chip) are optimized for power

efficiency.

Memory (RAM)

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the shortterm

memory of the device, used to store data that

the CPU needs quickly. It helps run applications

smoothly by temporarily holding data and

instructions. More RAM allows for better

multitasking and faster performance, particularly

when running multiple applications.

Storage

Hard Disk Drives (HDD) or Solid State Drives

(SSD) in computers, and Flash Storage in mobile

devices, are used to store data long-term,

including the operating system, applications, and

user files.

SSDs and flash storage are faster and more

durable than traditional HDDs, making them

suitable for both computers and mobile devices.

Motherboard

The motherboard is a circuit board that connects

all internal components, including the CPU,

memory, and storage. It ensures that these

components communicate with each other

effectively. In mobile devices, this component is

compact and integrated to fit the small form

factor.

Power Supply and Battery

In desktop computers, the power supply unit

(PSU) converts electricity from an outlet into

usable power for the internal components.

Laptops and mobile devices use batteries, which

store energy to provide portable power, allowing

the device to be used without being plugged in.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

The GPU handles rendering images, videos, and

graphics. In computers, it may be integrated into

the CPU or a separate card, especially for gaming

or graphic design.

Mobile devices have integrated GPUs optimized

for power efficiency, enabling smooth visuals and

graphics.

Cooling System

Computers often include fans or liquid cooling to

dissipate heat generated by the CPU, GPU, and

Introduction to Computing

other components. Mobile devices rely on passive

cooling, as they generate less heat and need to

stay compact.

Network Interface

Network Interface Cards (NICs) in computers

and Wi-Fi modules in mobile devices are used for

network connectivity, enabling devices to

connect to the Internet and other networks.

The Central Processing Unit (CPU), often

referred to as the "brain" of the computer or

mobile device, is responsible for executing

instructions and managing the operations of the

entire system. The CPU processes data by

performing calculations, making logical

decisions, and controlling input/output

operations. Its key functions include:

1. Fetching Instructions: The CPU retrieves

instructions from the computer's memory

to be processed.

2. Decoding Instructions: Once fetched, the

CPU decodes the instructions to

understand the specific tasks required.

3. Executing Instructions: The CPU

performs arithmetic and logical

operations, executes data transfers, and

controls the flow of information based on

the decoded instructions.

4. Storing Results: After executing an

instruction, the CPU stores the results in

memory for further use or output.

The performance of the CPU is crucial to the

overall speed and responsiveness of a device, as

it determines how quickly tasks are completed.

The CPU's performance is influenced by factors

such as clock speed (measured in GHz), number

of cores (enabling multitasking), and cache

memory (allowing for fast access to frequently

used data).

Memory stores data temporarily or permanently,

enabling devices to perform tasks.

1. RAM (Random Access Memory):

Temporary storage used by the CPU to

store data currently being processed. It

allows fast access, enabling smooth

multitasking and quick response times.

2. ROM (Read-Only Memory):

Permanent memory that contains

essential instructions, such as the system

firmware, needed for booting the device.

It cannot be modified during normal

operation.

3. Cache Memory: Small, high-speed

memory located close to the CPU, used

to store frequently accessed data,

reducing data retrieval time and speeding

up processing.

Storage Devices store data permanently:

1. Hard Drives (HDDs): Traditional

mechanical storage with spinning disks,

used in computers for large storage

capacity at a lower cost.

2. Solid State Drives (SSDs): Faster, more

durable storage without moving parts,

providing quicker data access and better

performance compared to HDDs.

3. Internal Storage in Mobile Devices:

Flash storage used in smartphones and

tablets, offering fast read/write speeds,

crucial for apps and data on mobile

devices.

The motherboard is the main circuit board that

connects and allows communication between all

components of a computer or mobile device. It

houses essential components like the CPU,

RAM, storage interfaces, and expansion slots,

and includes connectors for power, input/output

devices, and peripherals. It acts as the backbone

of the system, ensuring all parts work together

efficiently.

Power Supply and Battery manage device

power:

1. Power Supply Unit (PSU): Converts

electricity from an outlet into usable

power for computer components.

2. Battery: Provides portable power for

laptops and mobile devices, allowing

operation without being plugged in.

Introduction to Computing

Input/Output Ports and Interfaces

Input/Output (I/O) ports and interfaces are

essential components of computers and mobile

devices, allowing them to connect with peripheral

devices for data transfer, charging, and

communication. Here are some key types:

1. USB (Universal Serial Bus):

Role: USB ports allow for the connection of

various peripherals, including keyboards, mice,

printers, and external storage devices. They also

support data transfer and charging.

Types: Includes USB-A, USB-B, USB-C, and

Micro USB, each with different shapes and

capabilities (e.g., USB-C supports faster data

transfer and power delivery).

2. HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia

Interface):

Role: HDMI ports transmit high-definition audio

and video signals from a computer or mobile

device to displays like monitors, TVs, or

projectors.

Usage: Commonly used in home entertainment

systems, presentations, and gaming setups for

high-quality media output.

3. Charging Ports:

Role: These ports allow devices to connect to a

power source for charging. They can be dedicated

charging ports or multi-functional ports like

USB-C.

Types: Common charging ports include Micro

USB, Lightning (for Apple devices), and USB-C,

with USB-C becoming increasingly popular due

to its versatility.

4. Audio Jacks:

Role: Standard 3.5mm audio jacks are used to

connect headphones, microphones, and speakers

for audio input and output.

Usage: Essential for listening to music, making

calls, and audio recording.

5. Ethernet Ports:

Role: Ethernet ports allow for wired network

connections, providing stable internet access and

data transfer capabilities.

Usage: Common in desktops and some laptops,

especially in office environments for reliable

network connections.

6. SD Card Slots:

Role: Secure Digital (SD) card slots enable the

expansion of storage by allowing users to insert

removable memory cards.

Usage: Frequently used in cameras, laptops, and

some mobile devices to store photos, videos, and

documents.

7. Display Ports (e.g., DisplayPort,

VGA):

Role: Used to connect external monitors and

projectors, transmitting video and audio signals.

Usage: Essential for multi monitor setups and

presentations.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

The Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

specializes in rendering graphics by leveraging

parallel processing. Here’s how it works:

1. Parallel Processing: The GPU has many

cores that perform multiple calculations

simultaneously, ideal for handling complex

graphics tasks.

2. Rendering Pipeline: It processes graphics

through stages:

• Vertex Processing: Converts 3D

coordinates to 2D.

• Rasterization: Turns images into pixels.

• Pixel Processing: Applies textures and

effects to pixels.

3. Memory Management: The GPU uses

dedicated memory (VRAM) for quick access

to graphical data.

Introduction to Computing

4. Output: Finally, the GPU sends the rendered

images to the display.

Cooling Systems

Cooling systems are essential for maintaining

optimal temperatures in computers and devices to

prevent overheating. Key components include:

1. Fans: Move air through the system to

dissipate heat generated by components

like the CPU and GPU.

2. Heat Sinks: Metal structures that absorb

and dissipate heat away from critical

components, enhancing cooling

efficiency.

3. Thermal Management: Techniques that

monitor temperatures and control cooling

mechanisms, ensuring stable

performance and prolonging component

lifespan.

Sensors in Mobile Devices

Mobile devices are equipped with various

sensors that enhance functionality and user

experience. Key sensors include:

1. Accelerometers: Measure the device's

acceleration and orientation, enabling

features like screen rotation and step

tracking.

2. Gyroscopes: Detect rotational motion

and orientation changes, improving

navigation and gaming experiences by

providing precise motion sensing.

3. GPS (Global Positioning System):

Provides location information by

connecting to satellites, enabling

navigation, location tracking, and

location-based services.

Communication Modules in Mobile Devices

Communication modules enable mobile devices

to connect and exchange data wirelessly. Key

modules include:

1. Wi-Fi: Allows devices to connect to

local networks and the Internet,

providing high-speed data transfer over

short distances.

2. Bluetooth: Facilitates short-range

wireless communication between

devices, commonly used for connecting

accessories like headphones and fitness

trackers.

3. Cellular Modems: Enable mobile

devices to connect to cellular networks

for voice calls and mobile data, allowing

users to access the Internet on the go.

Operating System Integration

Operating systems (OS) manage hardware

interactions in devices, acting as intermediaries

between hardware and software. Here’s how they

work:

1. Device Drivers: The OS uses device

drivers to communicate with hardware

components, translating OS commands

into hardware-specific instructions.

2. Resource Management: The OS

allocates resources (CPU, memory,

storage) to different hardware

components, ensuring efficient operation

and multitasking.

3. User Interface: The OS provides a user

interface to interact with hardware,

allowing users to control and manage

devices through graphical or commandline

interfaces.

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICE

Input Devices

Input devices are hardware components that

allow users to provide data and control signals to

a computer system. They enable interaction with

the system, facilitating tasks like data entry,

navigation, and communication.

Types of Input Devices:

Technology Behind Input Devices:

1. Keyboards: Used for typing text and

executing commands.

Introduction to Computing

Mechanical Keyboards: Use physical switches

that register key presses when activated.

Membrane Keyboards: Rely on a pressuresensitive

layer that completes a circuit when a key

is pressed.

2. Mice: Pointing devices that allow users to

navigate and interact with the graphical

interface.

Optical Mice: Use an LED light and sensor to

detect movement across surfaces.

Laser Mice: Utilize a laser for more precise

tracking on various surfaces.

3. Scanners: Convert physical documents and

images into digital formats.

Use optical sensors and light to capture images

and convert them into digital formats.

4. Microphones: Capture audio input for voice

commands, communication, or recording.

Convert sound waves into electrical signals using

diaphragm technology.

5. Touchscreens: Enable users to interact

directly with the display through touch

gestures.

Capacitive TouchscreensDetect touch through

changes in electric fields when a finger makes

contact.

Resistive Touchscreens: Respond to pressure

applied to the screen's surface.

6. Game Controllers: Devices for gaming,

providing buttons and joysticks for control.

Use buttons, joysticks, and motion sensors to

send input signals to gaming systems.

7. Digital Cameras: Capture images and

videos, allowing for input of visual data into

the system.

Capture images using sensors that convert light

into digital signals.

Applications of Input Devices

Use Cases in Different Fields:

1. Gaming:

Game controllers and VR gloves provide

immersive experiences and precise control in

video games.

2. Graphic Design:

Tablets and styluses enable artists to create digital

illustrations with precision and sensitivity.

3. Data Entry:

Keyboards and scanners are commonly used in

offices for typing documents and digitizing paper

records.

4. Audio Production:

Microphones are essential for recording vocals,

instruments, and sound effects in music

production.

5. Education:

Interactive whiteboards and touchscreens

facilitate learning and collaboration in

classrooms.

6. Healthcare:

Medical imaging scanners (e.g., MRI, CT)

capture detailed images for diagnosis and

treatment.

Output Devices

Definition and Function:

Output devices are hardware components that

receive data from a computer and present it to the

user in a readable or perceivable format. They

allow users to view, hear, or physically produce

information generated by the computer system.

Types of Output Devices:

1. Monitors: Display visual output from the

computer, including images, videos, and text.

2. Printers: Produce physical copies of digital

documents and images on paper.

3. Speakers: Output audio signals, allowing

users to hear sound from the computer.

4. Projectors: Display visual content onto large

surfaces for presentations and screenings.

Introduction to Computing

5. Headphones: Provide private audio output

for individual listening.

6. Plotters: Create high-quality graphical

output, often used for technical drawings and

blueprints.

How Output Devices Work

Technology Behind Output Devices:

1. Monitors:

• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display): Use

liquid crystals sandwiched between glass

layers, illuminated by backlighting to

display images.

• LED (Light Emitting Diode): Similar to

LCDs but use LEDs for backlighting,

offering better contrast and energy

efficiency.

2. Printers:

• Inkjet Printers: Spray tiny droplets of

ink onto paper to create images and text.

• Laser Printers: Use laser beams to fuse

toner onto paper, providing faster and

high-quality prints.

3. Speakers:

• Convert electrical signals into sound

through diaphragm vibrations.

4. Projectors:

• Use light sources to project images from

a computer onto a larger screen.

5. Plotters:

• Utilize pens or blades to draw images on

paper or other materials, often for

detailed graphics.

Applications of Output Devices

Use Cases in Various Fields:

1. Multimedia:

• Monitors and speakers are essential for

viewing and listening to movies, music,

and other media.

2. Design:

• Printers and plotters are widely used in

graphic design for producing prototypes,

posters, and technical drawings.

3. Education:

• Projectors and monitors facilitate

teaching by displaying presentations,

videos, and interactive content.

4. Healthcare:

• Printers are used for printing medical

records, while monitors display patient

information and imaging results.

PHOTOMANIPULATION

Photomanipulation is the digital alteration of

images to enhance, modify, or create new visuals.

Its purpose spans artistic expression, advertising,

and media representation.

Applications:

Photomanipulation is widely used in art,

advertising campaigns, and media production to

create compelling visuals that capture attention.

Tools and Software for Photomanipulation

Popular Software:

• Adobe Photoshop: Industry-standard

software for advanced editing.

• GIMP: A free alternative with robust

features.

Tools and Features:

Common tools include brushes, selection tools,

layers, and filters, which facilitate various editing

tasks.

Basic Techniques

1. Cropping and Resizing: Adjust image

dimensions for better composition.

2. Brightness and Color Adjustments:

Enhance image quality and appeal.

3. Removing Imperfections: Use cloning and

healing tools to fix flaws.

Layering Techniques

Introduction to Computing

1. Understanding Layers: Layers allow for

non-destructive editing and organization of

elements.

2. Blending Layers: Techniques for seamless

integration of multiple images.

3. Using Masks: Masks enable selective editing

of specific areas.

Advanced Manipulation Techniques

1. Composite Images: Combine multiple

photos to create a single cohesive image.

2. Special Effects: Add lighting, textures, and

other effects for creativity.

3. Perspective Manipulation: Alter viewpoints

and dimensions for artistic impact.

Text and Graphics Integration

1. Adding Text: Incorporate and edit text for

captions or titles.

2. Graphics Integration: Blend graphics and

illustrations into images for enhanced

storytelling.