11.1 The Caregiver-Child Attachment Relationship
Emotional deprivation and lack of meaningful relationships with caregivers in the first years of life hinder optimal social and cognitive development
20th century: children and their parents share a special bond
Behaviorism argued that food is the basis for the bond
Mothers evoke pleasure in the infant only because of this association
Harry Harlow
Worked with rhesus monkeys
Both groups of infants spent more time on the cloth mothers, initially the group fed by the cloth mother spent more time with it than did the monkeys fed by the wire mother
Monkey fed by the wire mothers increased amount of time spent on the cloth mothers as they got older
Strongly preferred, likely needed, the comfort provided by the cloth mother
Cloth mother functioned as “a source of security”
Research was criticized as unnecessarily cruel and unethical
Established that infants require more than their physical needs being met to thrive in the world
Attachment Theory – John Bowbly
Attachment theory: posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival
“Competence-motivated infant” who uses their primary caregiver as a secure base
Secure base: refers to the idea that the presence of a truncated caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment
Attachment purposes
Enhances the infant’s chance of survival by keeping the caregiver in close proximity
Helps the child feel emotionally secure, also allows them explore the world without fear
Serves as a form of co-regulation that helps children manage their levels of arousal and their emotions
Attachment process is rooted in evolution/increases the infant’s chance of survival
Viewed as having an innate basis, the development and quality of infants’ attachments are highly dependent on the nature of their experienced with caregivers
Develops a internal working model of attachment
Internal working model of attachment: mental representation of the self, of attachment figures and of relationships in general
Based on young children’s perception of the extent to which their caregiver can be depended on to satisfy their needs and provide a sense of security
Guides the individual’s expectations about relationships throughout life
Influence their overall adjustment, social behavior, perceptions of others, and the development of their self-esteem and sense of self
Measurement of Attachment Security
Measured by observing children’s behavior with their caregivers/interviewing caregivers and children about each other’s behaviors and the quality of relationship
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure
Studied mother-infant interactions during infants’ explorations and separations from their mother
Two key factors provide insight into the quality of attachment
The extent to which an infant is able to use the primary caregiver as a secure base
How the infant reacts to brief separations from, and reunions with the caregiver
Strange situation: test for assessing the security of an infant’s attachment to parent
Conducted in a context unfamiliar to the child/likely heighten the child’s need for parent
Discerned three distinct patterns
Identified three categories
Characterize a child’s relationship with a particular caregiver and is not a feature of the child
Secure attachment: infants/young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure – use caregiver as a secure base of exploration
One into which the majority of infants fall
Between 50%-60% of children
Insecure-resistant: infants/young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environments
Very upset when caregiver leaves, often cry intensely
In reunion, typically reestablishes contact with caregiver, only to rebuff their efforts at offering comfort
9%- 10%
Insecure-avoidant: infants/young children seem indifferent toward their caregivers and many even avoid the caregiver
15% of children
disorganized/disoriented: infants/young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress
Their behavior is confused or even contradictory, and often appear dazed or disoriented
Development of attachment in infancy and toddlerhood
Is there some similarity between infants’ behavior in the strange situation and their behavior at home? – YES
Children’s behavior in the strange situation correlates with attachment scores derived from observing their interactions with their caregiver over several hours
Criticisms
Requires substantial resources
Some psychologist argue that rather than falling into categories, is should be measures along multiple continuous dimensions
It is no longer so “strange” in a world where 61% of children under the age of 5 are cared by someone other than their parents on a daily basis
Sources of Individual Differences in Attachment Styles
Three main sources for individual differences: parental sensitivity, genetic predisposition and culture
Parenting and attachment styles
Parental behavior = strong predictor of children’s attachment styles
Found that mothers’ behavior in the home was linked with their children’s attachment classifications
Parental sensitivity: caregivers behavior that involves the expression of warmth as well as contingent and consistent responsiveness to children’s needs
Positive exchanges between mother and child are a characteristic of sensitive parenting that may be particularly important in promoting secure attachment
As association between fathers’ sensitivity/the security of child attachment has also been found but weaker
What is the same across cultures is that caregivers respond in a soothing and encouraging manner to children when they seek the caregivers’ attention
Evidence has been provided by short-term experimental interventions designed to enhance the sensitivity of mothers’ caregivers
Have been found to increase not only caregivers’ sensitivity but also security of attachment
Twin studies = nearly all the variation in attachments was due to environmental factors
Children can still develop secure attachment to parents even when they are not consistently sensitive
Finding likely derives from the fact that abusive parents can also be loving and sensitive at times
Also demonstrate that the biological drive to be securely attached is powerful enough to overcome frightening and painful parental behavior
Genetic influences
Research efforts are an attempt to determine how much of the underlying mechanisms are universal and how much are influenced by the child’s environment, including culture
Epigenetic effects play a role in the expression of attachment behavior, including support for the differential susceptibility hypothesis
Study focused on the possible influence that allelic variants of the serotonin transporter gene, SLC6A4, might have on behavior in the strange situation
DRD4 (gene involved in the dopamine system) are associated with disorganized/disoriented attachment when a infant is in a stressful environment but are associated with greater attachment security in a less stressful context
Such studies highlight the concept of differential susceptibility
Studies indicate that individuals’ genetic makeup affects both the way in which environmental forces influence their attachment security in childhood and the continuity of attachment security into adulthood
Cultural variations in attachment styles
Infants’ behaviors in the strange situation are similar across numerous cultures,
Children in colombia/peru were least likely to remain in close physical proximity to their mothers, whereas children in italy/portugal were much more likely to maintain physical contact with their mothers
Attachment and Socioemotional Development
Predict their later socioemotional development
Secure attachment – more likely to develop positive/constructive internal working models of attachment – helps to shape their adjustment and social behavior, self-perception and expectations of others
Securely attached in infancy – seem to have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers later in childhood
Securely attached children are also better able to understand others’ emotions and display more helping, sharing and concern for peers
Securely attached – more likely to report positive emotion/exhibit normal rather than abnormal patterns of reactivity to stress
Children may be most at risk if they have insecure attachments to both parents
11.1 The Caregiver-Child Attachment Relationship
Emotional deprivation and lack of meaningful relationships with caregivers in the first years of life hinder optimal social and cognitive development
20th century: children and their parents share a special bond
Behaviorism argued that food is the basis for the bond
Mothers evoke pleasure in the infant only because of this association
Harry Harlow
Worked with rhesus monkeys
Both groups of infants spent more time on the cloth mothers, initially the group fed by the cloth mother spent more time with it than did the monkeys fed by the wire mother
Monkey fed by the wire mothers increased amount of time spent on the cloth mothers as they got older
Strongly preferred, likely needed, the comfort provided by the cloth mother
Cloth mother functioned as “a source of security”
Research was criticized as unnecessarily cruel and unethical
Established that infants require more than their physical needs being met to thrive in the world
Attachment Theory – John Bowbly
Attachment theory: posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival
“Competence-motivated infant” who uses their primary caregiver as a secure base
Secure base: refers to the idea that the presence of a truncated caregiver provides an infant or toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the child to explore the environment
Attachment purposes
Enhances the infant’s chance of survival by keeping the caregiver in close proximity
Helps the child feel emotionally secure, also allows them explore the world without fear
Serves as a form of co-regulation that helps children manage their levels of arousal and their emotions
Attachment process is rooted in evolution/increases the infant’s chance of survival
Viewed as having an innate basis, the development and quality of infants’ attachments are highly dependent on the nature of their experienced with caregivers
Develops a internal working model of attachment
Internal working model of attachment: mental representation of the self, of attachment figures and of relationships in general
Based on young children’s perception of the extent to which their caregiver can be depended on to satisfy their needs and provide a sense of security
Guides the individual’s expectations about relationships throughout life
Influence their overall adjustment, social behavior, perceptions of others, and the development of their self-esteem and sense of self
Measurement of Attachment Security
Measured by observing children’s behavior with their caregivers/interviewing caregivers and children about each other’s behaviors and the quality of relationship
Ainsworth’s Strange Situation Procedure
Studied mother-infant interactions during infants’ explorations and separations from their mother
Two key factors provide insight into the quality of attachment
The extent to which an infant is able to use the primary caregiver as a secure base
How the infant reacts to brief separations from, and reunions with the caregiver
Strange situation: test for assessing the security of an infant’s attachment to parent
Conducted in a context unfamiliar to the child/likely heighten the child’s need for parent
Discerned three distinct patterns
Identified three categories
Characterize a child’s relationship with a particular caregiver and is not a feature of the child
Secure attachment: infants/young children have a positive and trusting relationship with their attachment figure – use caregiver as a secure base of exploration
One into which the majority of infants fall
Between 50%-60% of children
Insecure-resistant: infants/young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than exploring their environments
Very upset when caregiver leaves, often cry intensely
In reunion, typically reestablishes contact with caregiver, only to rebuff their efforts at offering comfort
9%- 10%
Insecure-avoidant: infants/young children seem indifferent toward their caregivers and many even avoid the caregiver
15% of children
disorganized/disoriented: infants/young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress
Their behavior is confused or even contradictory, and often appear dazed or disoriented
Development of attachment in infancy and toddlerhood
Is there some similarity between infants’ behavior in the strange situation and their behavior at home? – YES
Children’s behavior in the strange situation correlates with attachment scores derived from observing their interactions with their caregiver over several hours
Criticisms
Requires substantial resources
Some psychologist argue that rather than falling into categories, is should be measures along multiple continuous dimensions
It is no longer so “strange” in a world where 61% of children under the age of 5 are cared by someone other than their parents on a daily basis
Sources of Individual Differences in Attachment Styles
Three main sources for individual differences: parental sensitivity, genetic predisposition and culture
Parenting and attachment styles
Parental behavior = strong predictor of children’s attachment styles
Found that mothers’ behavior in the home was linked with their children’s attachment classifications
Parental sensitivity: caregivers behavior that involves the expression of warmth as well as contingent and consistent responsiveness to children’s needs
Positive exchanges between mother and child are a characteristic of sensitive parenting that may be particularly important in promoting secure attachment
As association between fathers’ sensitivity/the security of child attachment has also been found but weaker
What is the same across cultures is that caregivers respond in a soothing and encouraging manner to children when they seek the caregivers’ attention
Evidence has been provided by short-term experimental interventions designed to enhance the sensitivity of mothers’ caregivers
Have been found to increase not only caregivers’ sensitivity but also security of attachment
Twin studies = nearly all the variation in attachments was due to environmental factors
Children can still develop secure attachment to parents even when they are not consistently sensitive
Finding likely derives from the fact that abusive parents can also be loving and sensitive at times
Also demonstrate that the biological drive to be securely attached is powerful enough to overcome frightening and painful parental behavior
Genetic influences
Research efforts are an attempt to determine how much of the underlying mechanisms are universal and how much are influenced by the child’s environment, including culture
Epigenetic effects play a role in the expression of attachment behavior, including support for the differential susceptibility hypothesis
Study focused on the possible influence that allelic variants of the serotonin transporter gene, SLC6A4, might have on behavior in the strange situation
DRD4 (gene involved in the dopamine system) are associated with disorganized/disoriented attachment when a infant is in a stressful environment but are associated with greater attachment security in a less stressful context
Such studies highlight the concept of differential susceptibility
Studies indicate that individuals’ genetic makeup affects both the way in which environmental forces influence their attachment security in childhood and the continuity of attachment security into adulthood
Cultural variations in attachment styles
Infants’ behaviors in the strange situation are similar across numerous cultures,
Children in colombia/peru were least likely to remain in close physical proximity to their mothers, whereas children in italy/portugal were much more likely to maintain physical contact with their mothers
Attachment and Socioemotional Development
Predict their later socioemotional development
Secure attachment – more likely to develop positive/constructive internal working models of attachment – helps to shape their adjustment and social behavior, self-perception and expectations of others
Securely attached in infancy – seem to have closer, more harmonious relationships with peers later in childhood
Securely attached children are also better able to understand others’ emotions and display more helping, sharing and concern for peers
Securely attached – more likely to report positive emotion/exhibit normal rather than abnormal patterns of reactivity to stress
Children may be most at risk if they have insecure attachments to both parents
