Language
language
Definition: communication system that relies on patterns and rules of symbols
Arbitrariness: symbols don’t match objects (word dog doesn’t describe what one looks like)
Purpose: convey information, socialize, emotion, art
Language levels:
Phonemes
Definition: smallest units of sounds
Examples: s (sat), b(oi)l, bit —> b/i/t; humans can make 100s of phonemes
Morphemes
Definition: smallest unit of meaning
Examples: cat (morpheme 1) + s (morpheme 2) = cats
- re-, -ed, -ing
- play, replay, played, playing
Difference from phonemes: morphemes are related to the meaning and structure of language, phonemes are related to the sounds and pronunciation of a language
Syntax
Definition: set of grammar rules to construct sentences
Examples:
- English: subject-verb-object
“the boy eats the apple”
Extralinguistic information
Definition: non-verbal and context cues that add meaning to language (tone of voice, body language, etc)
Context example: “I am refusing this date” can mean refusing romantic date, refusing to meet on a certain date, refusing to eat a date (the fruit)
Tone-of-voice example: “go clean your room” can relay an angry command or sarcastic command depending on how said
Dialect
Definition: language variation used by a group of people who share a geographic proximity or ethnic background
Examples: In Canada, different regions use different words to describe a summer home, such as cabin, camp, chalet, cottage, and bungalow
Opposing views of language development
BF Skinner: language learned through operant conditioning
Noam Chomsky: language is biologically determined: language acquisition device
Critical period: language development is maximized early in life
Language stages
Prenatal: preference for mother’s voice
Babbling: ~6 months, produce and repeat single syllabi
Comprehension vs Production: children comprehend basic language rules before being able to produce them
First words: ~1 yr, produce and repeat single syllabi, holophrases
Telegraphic speech: ~2 yrs, simple sentences, overgeneralization (‘goed’ vs ‘went’')
Conversations: ~4-6 yrs, clear understanding of rules (grammar and syntax
Lecture Video 8.2: Judgment and Decision Making
Cognitive economy
Definition: resources allocated to thinking and decision making
Heuristics: mental shortcuts to simplify decisions
Oversimplification: danger of heuristics, we can incorrectly attribute a quality to a person or situation
Tversky & Kahneman’s Systems of Thinking
System 1: automatic; snap judgements and actions that we make (brain’s autopilot) & simple associations
Examples: tying shoes, understanding simple sentences and simple math, knowing if someone is being hostile towards you & associating Paris with France
System 2: analytical; slow and controlled, taking time to be logical and calculated
Examples: checking the validity of a complex logical argument, looking for someone in a train station, making yourself walk faster, looking for a spelling mistake in your assignment
Representativeness heuristic
Base rates: how common something is
Examples: representation of librarian may lead you to believe that Steve is more likely to be one, but stats show he is more likely to be a farmer, 20:1
Definition: make decisions based on how representative something is, judgements about probability based on a similarity or prototype
Availability heuristic
Examples: increased attention on airplane crashes in the media makes the negative aspects of flying more available in our memories than the dangers of driving, resulting in an increased fear of flying
Definitions: estimate likelihood of occurrence based on how “available” information is to us
Hindsight bias:
Definition: overestimating how well we would have predicted something after it occurred
Example: like when you get to the end of a movie and there was twist for who the killer was, but only after the movie is over do you think that you knew who it was the whole time
Lecture Video 8.3: Problem Solving
Framing
Definition: how information is presented (e.g. gains/losses) affect decisions
Examples: Vendor A frames the raffle in terms of how often you lose and vendor B frames it by how often you lose. You pick vendor A because of the possibility of winning, despite both vendors posing a 20% chance of winning.
Obstacles
Competing information: failure to focus on the important stuff
Mental sets
Definition: getting caught up in a particular problem solving strategy
Examples: computer freezes, you assume restarting it will fix it since it usually does, but every time you do, the computer still freezes. You try again and again but it doesn’t get fixed. You are stuck in a mental set.
Functional fixedness
Definition: difficulty perceiving an objects being used for something other than what it is designed for
Examples: you are given a box with tacks and a candle, you have to affix the candle to the wall. The solution is to put the tack through the box then affix the candle, but it is hard for most people to think to use the box as they do not see it as a tool to help.
Strategies
Trial and Error: continue to try different solutions until problem is solved
Examples:
Algorithm: step by step problem solving formula
Examples: baking, cooking, putting together Ikea furniture
Heuristics: general problem solving formula (rule of thumb)
Examples:
Divide and conquer: break down large complex problems into smaller, more manageable problems
Examples: 3+ 6 + 2 + 4 = (3 + 6) + (2 + 4) = 9 + 6 = 15
Insight: the sudden recognition of a solution to a problem
Examples: the “A-ha!” Moment
Means-end analysis: chose and modifying actions in a series of smaller steps to meet a larger goal
Examples: trying to find the means to get to an end,
Tower of Hanoi: frequently used psychological technique to study problem solving and procedure analysis, an example of means to an end strategy