Lesson 1.1: Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Gender

The Difference Between Sex and Gender

·         “Sex refers to biological differences that distinguish humans and other animals into two main categories: male and female.”

·         “Gender encompasses all the social, cultural, and psychological characteristics that a culture assigns to males and females. It categorizes which behaviors and traits are appropriate for men and women. There are two main types of gender: masculine and feminine.”

Gender Roles

·         “There are two main types of gender: masculine and feminine.”

·         “Each gender has its own gender role, which is defined as culturally-assigned tasks and activities to the sexes.”

·         Culturally-assigned tasks and activities to sexes

·         Social constructs

Examples:

§  Only males can handle physically demanding activities.

§  Females should handle domestic tasks.

Sex-Gender Systems

“In a society with a sex-gender system, males are typically expected to be masculine and females to be feminine. However, these expectations are now challenged, especially in contemporary and modern societies.”

Gender and gender roles are associated with one’s biological sex.

However, the constructs of gender and gender roles are challenged in contemporary and modern societies.

Culture, Society, and Gender

Culture is largely involved in defining gender in societies.

“The cultural construction of gender entails that different societies, having different cultures, will have varying definitions of masculinity and femininity. The concept of gender as a cultural construction tells us that gender is a product of how societies and their culture adapt to the conditions of their natural and social environment.”

Examples:

“Let us consider a hunting and gathering society as an example. In such societies, gender differentiation is evident in their division of labor, as gender roles are determined through sex differences. Since male members are physically stronger than females, they are largely in charge of hunting wild animals for food. On the other hand, females manage the home due to their natural ability to nurture children (through breastfeeding). They also gather plant resources to serve different functions (e.g., food and shelter) for the survival of their family and tribes.

Another example is the agricultural societies in Cordillera. The Ifugao communities living in Banaue still assign planting activities to their female members because they believe a woman’s touch is nurturing. Male Ifugao members are mainly associated with rituals that deal with slaughtering animals such as pigs and chickens. In these examples, it can be seen how a group’s adaptive strategy shapes gender roles in society. Besides adaptive strategies and environment, other researchers also suggest that factors such as economy and type of political systems contribute to determining gender and gender roles in society.”

Gender is more malleable and changing across societies.

“Unlike sex, which is relatively absolute and universal because of biological structures (e.g., chromosomes, hormones, genitalia), gender is more malleable and changing across societies.”

“For example, in the Philippines, manual work in construction sites is considered “man’s work,” but in other countries like Thailand, women perform manual labor.”

As culture dictates appropriate characteristics for each gender, society propagates these definitions and characteristics.

“Through socialization among different social groups, members of society can learn and shape their conceptions and expectations of what is feminine and what is masculine.”

“The learning starts with families who encourage behaviors and characteristics that are suitable for each sex (male or female) and discourage those that are not. Peer, church, school, and media further strengthen this learning.”

LESSON 1.2: Socioeconomic Class

Defining Socioeconomic Class

Socioeconomic class refers to a category that groups people into similar economic, social, cultural, and political status.

“Economic status refers to the ranking of people based on their income classification. A family with lower income puts one in a lower economic status while those who have higher income advances people to a higher status.”

“Different occupations and educational attainment have an attached value that influences an individual’s position in a socioeconomic class. Doctors, lawyers, and other white-collar occupations are considered more prestigious than blue-collar jobs. Blue-collar workers like construction workers and janitors are sometimes socially stigmatized.”

“In terms of education, those who attain undergraduate or higher academic degrees are admired in society. The lack or absence of formal education invites disapproval from societal members.”

The Caste System

Brahmins - priest
Kshatriyas - kings, rulers, warriors
Vaisyas - merchants, craftsmen, landowners, skilled workers
Sudras - farm workers, unskilled workers, servants
Dalits (Untouchables) - street sweepers, human/animal waste removers, dead body handlers, outcastes

“Classifying members of society into socioeconomic classes exist across cultures. For example, the caste system of India determines an individual's social class and status in their society. Citizens from higher classes receive more job opportunities in the government than lower caste members.”

Socioeconomic Class in Contemporary Filipino Society According to Zaide (2005)

“There are various ways by which contemporary Philippine society is divided based on socioeconomic class. The classification shown in the slide was proposed by Zaide in 2005. Other scholars have different ways of analyzing Philippine society.

It should be noted, however, that as political, social, and cultural changes occur, conceptions of socioeconomic classes may change as well.”

“Each socioeconomic class enjoys different economic, social, and political rights. Contemporary Philippine society is often divided into the lower, middle, and upper classes.”

Philippines during Spanish Era Socioeconomic Class

1.       Peninsulares - citizens with pure Spanish blood who were born in Spain

2.       Insulares - pure Spaniards born in the Philippines

3.       Ilustrados - Filipinos who studied abroad (like Jose Rizal, and Marcelo H. Del Pilar)

4.       Chinese/Spanish Mestizos - fourth in the hierarchy

5.       Indios - native Filipinos that are born and raised in the Philippines.

Karl Marx - proposed a socioeconomic class system that delineates the bourgeois and the proletariat.

·         Bourgeois

o    owner of the means of production or the monetary, land, and technological capital

o    do not have to work yet they accumulate wealth

·         Proletariat

o    do not own the means of production

o    must work and sell their labor power in order to survive

“The bourgeois is the class that owns the “means of production” (e.g., monetary, land, technological capital) needed to initiate the production of wealth. They do not have to work since they gain money from owning and investing their capital. The proletariat includes anybody who is not an owner of the means of production. They must work to survive. In this system of socioeconomic class, the difference between the classes’ economic and social status is clearly evident.”

Types of Capital

·         Economic capital refers to financial resources that an individual possesses. Examples include money, assets, properties, and savings.”

·         Social capital is the collection or network of an individual’s social relations with people that may be of help in the future. Examples include relationships with peers, friends, family, teachers, fellow alums, colleagues, employers, and community members.”

·         Cultural capital is the combination of knowledge, behaviors, and skills that an individual has acquired to demonstrate one’s cultural competence and, in turn, determine one’s social status in society. Examples include material capital (sources of knowledge like books and computers) and nonmaterial capital (academic degrees, job titles, religious titles, and other social roles).”

LESSON 1.3: Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Ethnicity and Religion

Ethnic Group

An ethnic group refers to a specific group of people with similar characteristics and a distinct cultural identity, which distinguish them from other groups in the community or society.

“The largest ethnic groups in the Philippines include Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Bicolano, Maranao, Maguindanao, and Tausug.”

Ethnicity

Ethnicity denotes the shared culture of these groups, which includes cultural heritage, language or dialect, religions and rituals, norms, values, beliefs, and other practices.

“Having an ethnicity makes it easy for people to feel that they can identify with an ethnic group.”

“The shared culture (or ethnicity) of a group of people is what solidifies their identity as an ethnic group.”

“It is also ethnicity that enables an individual to separate and distinguish himself from other groups of which he is not part.”

Race is a socially constructed category attributed to people with the same biological traits or attributes

“Peoples classification of race is usually based on physical characteristics like skin color, facial features, and hair texture and color. Some of the commonly known racial attributes are black, white, or Asian.”

“It is important to remember that even though race is based on biological characteristics, the concept is still socially constructed. Meaning, it is still a society that decides whether which physical characteristics are significant enough to get a label or name.”

Differentiating Ethnicity and Race

Religion in Ethnicity

Religion is a system of beliefs, worldviews, and practices related to humanity and spirituality.

“Religion, as part of one’s culture, can also be considered as one aspect of an individual’s ethnicity.”

“Ethnic groups may have different symbols which they consider sacred. The differences between these symbols also entail differences in how these symbols are expressed in a cultural group’s belief system and rituals. These belief systems influence how people would interpret and interact with the world in which they live.”

Animism is the belief that spiritual forces reside in natural elements of the physical world (e.g., trees, oceans, wind).

“One of the earliest recorded religions in society is animism among hunting and gathering societies.”

“The physical world elements were considered sacred, which invoked veneration and respect for nature.”

“The concept of “God” and “gods” eventually developed in horticultural and agricultural societies.”

“In the contemporary world, innumerable religions are already established across the world, having different sets of beliefs, rituals, gods, and sacred symbols.”

LESSON 1.4: Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Exceptionality/Non-Exceptionality

Disability

Disability is a term that refers to the interaction of an individual's health condition with environmental factors that cause difficulties or hindrances in performing activities and interacting with others.

A disability is any condition of the body or mind (impairment) that makes it more difficult for the person with the condition to do certain activities (activity limitation) and interact with the world around them (participation restrictions).

“Disability is now viewed as not solely caused by a person’s health conditions. Disability happens when the environment and society generally do not ensure the rights and access of people with specific mental, psychosocial, sensory, and physical conditions. If a person’s environment is inclusive and enabling, their specific conditions do not cause disability.”

Handicap

Disadvantage for a given individual that limits or prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal.

The person experiences a disadvantage in filling a normal role in life compared to his or her peers due to the functional limitation caused by the impairment.

Result of disability or impairment.

Ex: not being able to climb stairs anymore or run a marathon or be a basketball player. PARALYMPICS, WHEELCHAIR

Exceptionality

Exceptionality is a concept that describes how an individual’s specific abilities and functioning—physical, intellectual, or behavioral— are different from the established average or typical qualities.

“The term exceptionality is more encompassing than disability.”

“Exceptionality describes how some individuals’ abilities deviate, positively or negatively, from the usual standards set by society.”

“People who are described as exceptional may deviate from the norm.”

“Children with superior intellectual ability can be classified as a person with exceptionalities. Similarly, children with disabilities (physical, mental, behavioral, or emotional) are also considered as such.“

examples:

having extraordinary abilities (also called gifts or talents), such as in the realm of academics, arts, and music

recognized disabilities such as learning disabilities (e.g., dyslexia, dyscalculia),

developmental delays (e.g., intellectual disability, and autism)

emotional and behavioral disorders, communication disorders (e.g., stuttering)

hearing disabilities (deafness), visual impairments (e.g.,low vision, loss of vision or blindness)

physical disabilities (e.g., orthopedic impairment, traumatic brain injury)

Non-exceptionality

The concept of non-exceptionality is only used to differentiate between those with exceptionalities and those without exceptionalities.

“The concepts of exceptionality and non-exceptionality are social and cultural constructs. Society sets the standards and definitions of who is exceptional and who is not.”

Labels and Status of the Exceptional

Societal members use labels to describe the different types of exceptionalities.

“The terms like gifted, talented, deaf, blind, and dyslexic are some of the labels used by people to refer to individuals with exceptionalities. Over the past years, the appropriate use of descriptors has become a subject of debate.”

LESSON 1.5: Cultural Variations and Social Differences in Nationality

What is Nationality?

Nationality is a person’s belonging or membership to a specific nation or nation-state.

-          places high value to one’s membership and allegiance to a particular country for the determination of one’s nationality.

“Nationality is a term that has been defined and redefined by different perspectives that it now becomes difficult to look for its definition.”

“This definition of nationality places high value to one’s membership and allegiance to a particular country for the determination of one’s nationality.”

“Nationality does not equate to ethnicity. It is possible that nationals of a specific nation-state belong to different ethnic groups. In some cases, ethnic groups are denied of membership to a nation-state.”

Acquisition of One’s Nationality

Obtaining one’s nationality is dependent on the recognized and enacted nationality law in a particular state.

“Nationality can be acquired in different ways.”

“Since there is no universal law about such, it now becomes a prerogative or right of the state to determine who are or can be their nationals.”

Difference between Jus Sanguinis and Jus Soli

“The principle of jus sanguinis (translated as “right of blood”) determines the nationality and citizenship by the parent’s nationality.”

“In jus soli (translated as “right of soil”), one’s nationality is determined by the territory or land in which the he or she is born or is according to birthplace.”

examples:

“The Philippines implements this nationality law in determining its citizens. A child of two Filipino parents is born in the Philippines. The child will also be Filipino. In the same way, an American national giving birth to a child in the Philippine lands passes its nationality to the child by virtue of jus sanguinis.”

“The United States of America employs nationality law, which means that everybody born in the USA, regardless of their parent’s nationalities, will be claimed by the American government as American nationals.”

Naturalization is the legal process of acquiring citizenship and nationality from a different state.

“Another way of obtaining nationality is through naturalization.”

“Both the Philippines and the United States use naturalization to change the nationalities of foreigners from their country.”

LESSON 2.1: Social, Political, and Cultural Behavior and Phenomena

Society, Culture, and Politics

Society is a group of individuals held together by enduring relationships in pursuit of common ends.

Culture is a society's way of life expressed through material and nonmaterial aspects.

Politics refers to a set of activities and actions that are used to hold power in a government. Politics is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of resources or status

Two Forms of Culture

Sociologists and anthropologists have determined two forms of culture, namely material culture and nonmaterial culture. Both play an essential role in the formation of a society’s identity.

·         Material culture is the set of physical objects made by the members of a society. They are also known as artifacts.

·         Nonmaterial culture is the intangible aspect of culture, such as ideas.

Elements of Culture

·         Values and Beliefs

o    what is good and just

o    ideas that people hold to be true

·         Norms

o    appropriate behavior within a culture or society

·         Symbols and Language

o    recognizable meanings

o    system of communication

The major elements of a culture are values and beliefs, norms, and symbols and language.

Values are the understanding and agreement of society on what is good and just (Griffiths, Strayer and Cody-Rydzewski 2015).

Beliefs are the convictions that people hold to be true. Every society has a specific belief system and they also share collective values. For example, Filipinos normally believe elderly parents should live with the family and not in nursing homes. This belief is guided by the Filipino value of respect for the elderly.

Norms are defined as how we behave according to the expectations of society. Members of society learn norms by observing and imitating others and through general socialization.

Symbols are recognizable meanings shared by societies, such as gestures, signs, signals, and words.

Language is the form of communication that can either be spoken or in a nonverbal action. Symbols and language are learned and transmitted through one’s culture.

Sociological Paradigms

Structural Functionalism

• Society functions as a whole because of the contributions of its separate structures.

Conflict Perspective

• Social inequality is one of the basic characteristics of society.

Interactionist Perspective/Symbolic Interactionism

• Society is a product of the interactions of an individual with other people.

Socialization is made possible through social interactions. Here are three sociological paradigms that may explain how we interact with others.

·         In structural functionalism, society is made up of interrelated parts known as structures. Each structure performs a function that contributes to the stability of society (Ferris and Stein 2018).

·         Meanwhile, conflict theory sees society as a stage for conflicts and tensions between the goals and values of people. There is always the prevalence of social inequality due to the unequal distribution of wealth and power (Ferris and Stein 2018).

·         Lastly, the interactionist perspective states that society is made from the social interaction of its members. It also emphasized that social interactions construct meanings in society.

Cultural Universals

Cultural universals are traits or patterns of behavior shared by all human cultures.

A cultural universal is an element, trait, or pattern that is globally common to all societies. While societies have their own separate and identifiable unique cultures, there are common elements that exist in all cultures. Examples of these universals are having a family system and a government, the practice of having funerals, and the conduct of marriage.

Socialization

The process of immersing oneself in a particular society and culture, even at birth.

Socialization is important because it allows a nation to continue to exist or transmit its social, cultural, and political identity from one generation to another.

Social, Cultural, and Political Identity

Socialization affects our behaviors, ways of thinking, values, and identities. As individuals become more immersed in a particular society, we begin to adapt more societal traits and share them with other individuals as well. Our concept of identity is derived from our membership in our society.

Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

Ethnocentrism – judging another culture based on how it compares to one’s own culture

Cultural relativism – practice of assessing a culture by its own standards

Although we can identify a lot of cultural universals across societies, there is still a predominance of cultural differences. When cultural differences are seen on a negative note because an individual judges the culture of another using his or her own cultural norms, then the individual is evaluating through the lens of ethnocentrism. It is the belief that one’s culture is better than others. An example of this is when tourists view the Filipino tradition of eating balut as weird and disgusting. Because in their own respective countries, they do not eat fertilized duck eggs.

To correct this, it has been suggested to practice what is called cultural relativism. This is an attitude of having an open mind to view and judge the culture of others using the context of that culture. For example, instead of judging why indigenous people dress differently from others, one must understand the context of the traditions of those groups and what their clothing represents. While it is good to be proud of our culture, it is equally important to respect the cultures of others.

LESSON 2.2: Social, Political, and Cultural Change

Characteristics of Culture

·         It is dynamic.

·         It is flexible and adaptive.

·         It is shared and integrated.

·         It is learned (enculturation).

Culture is constantly changing and will never stay the same. This is what we mean when we say it is dynamic. It also adjusts itself to new changes in order for it to survive. This is what makes culture flexible and adaptive. Culture is also shared and integrated because it can be transmitted from one generation to the next and from one group to another. Lastly, it is something we learn in a process called enculturation.

Cultural Processes in Cultural Change

Cultural diffusion is the dissemination of cultural components and traits from one group or society to another. You may use how our food is influenced by other cultures as an example.

Acculturation is the process of adopting the practices and values of one group but still retaining the group’s original culture. You may use religion as an example of acculturation.

Transculturation is the merging and converging of cultures to create a new cultural phenomenon. You may use migration as an example of transculturation.

Agents of Cultural Change in the Society

·         family

·         school

·         religion

·         media

·         leadership

·         law (Basáñez and Inglehart 2016)

Family – the values of parents are passed down to their children. In the family, parents serve as the transmitters of values, habits, beliefs, lifestyles, and social norms. An example context is how children absorb behaviors exhibited by their parents when it comes to gender roles or in the behaviors they practice inside and outside of the house.

School – the values of society are taught to prepare children for adult life. The school, as an agent, transmits societal values through formal knowledge and social skills. This will prepare them to be functional adults in the future.

Religion – the values of religion are used to teach belief systems and some of the beliefs become collective values.

Media – the communicated values shown by the media shape public opinion. The media triggers collective action from the values it advocates through its channels of communication.

Leadership – the values of a leader can introduce political and economic changes. Leadership works hand in hand with the law to promote change. However, it is the leaders who empower such changes. An example is the creation of new state offices, policies, etc.

Law – the law advocate values by establishing and structuring public institutions. Legal systems build public institutions depending on what the state advocates as values. An example of this is the mandate to implement the K–12 curriculum in the Philippines to restructure the DepEd policies for the school curriculum.

Social and Political Changes

·         innovation (discoveries and inventions)

·         globalization of markets, information, and people

Innovation affects society because it enables people to use new materials and new skills in place of older ways to do activities and interact with other people. Thus, the changes may create new norms and new laws to govern them. You may use the context of using a smartphone and online applications for the transfer of money. Because transferring money is no longer limited to banks or money transfer centers, a One Time Password (OTP) was introduced as a policy to protect users.

As for globalization, it refers to the integration of various systems in the world which used to be divided by country or by region. Access to opportunities available in another country, such as jobs, is a good example. You may use the context of how the government creates directives to support the strong market for call centers in the country.

LESSON 2.3: The Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

Social Sciences - disciplines concerned with the development and prediction of human behavior as influenced by cultural, social, psychological, and political phenomena

Social Sciences

·         Anthropology - It scientifically examines the behavior, origin, social, physical, and cultural development of humans.

·         Sociology - It is the systematic study of social interaction and society.

·         Political Science - It is the systematic and empirical study of governance that examines societal, cultural, and behavioral factors in the operation of government and politics.