Anatomy and Physiology Spring 200 Final Review
Anatomy and Physiology Spring Final Examination Overview
The Anatomy and Physiology Spring Final Review Outline dictates the parameters for a comprehensive two-day evaluation. Students are instructed to prioritize the study of important terms and root terms across four specific chapters: Chapter , Chapter , Chapter , and Chapter . The written final exam, scheduled for day one, consists of multiple-choice questions. Of these, approximately questions will focus exclusively on important anatomical terms and root terms, while the remaining questions will assess general knowledge synthesized from lecture notes. The second day of the examination involves a practical component consisting of a series of sketches covering each chapter. During this phase, students must identify and name key anatomical features illustrated in the provided diagrams.
Chapter : The Skeletal System and Bone Structure
The skeletal system is defined by five central functions: providing a structural framework to support the body, protecting soft internal organs, allowing for movement via muscle attachment, storing essential minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, and facilitating hematopoiesis (blood cell formation) within the marrow. Bone tissue is classified into two primary types: compact bone, which is dense, hard, and homogeneous, and spongy bone, which consists of small, needle-like pieces of bone (trabeculae) with significant open space. Anatomical shapes further categorize bones into four groups: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. A thorough understanding of bone markings is required, specifically projections (processes that grow out from the bone surface) and depressions (indentations or cavities in the bone).
The anatomy of a long bone includes several critical regions. The diaphysis constitutes the bone's shaft and length, while the epiphyses are the distal and proximal ends. The periosteum is the fibrous connective tissue membrane that covers and protects the diaphysis. Articular cartilage, specifically hyaline cartilage, covers the external surface of the epiphyses to provide a smooth, slippery surface that decreases friction at joint interfaces. The epiphysial plate is a flat plate of hyaline cartilage found in young, growing bone that eventually becomes the epiphysial line in adults. At the microscopic level, the Haversian system (or osteon) serves as the complex structural unit of compact bone. Within this system, the Osteocyte is the mature bone cell found housed within tiny cavities called lacunae.
The human skeleton is organized into two main divisions: the axial and appendicular skeletons. The axial skeleton encompasses the major bones of the skull and the vertebral column. In newborns, the skull features Fontanels, which are fibrous membranes that have not yet converted to bone, allowing for brain growth and the compression of the skull during birth. The vertebral column is studied by examining the various types (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal) and the specific structures of individual vertebrae. According to the review outline, the appendicular skeleton is categorized to include the stermun and the ribs, along with the shoulder girdles, pelvic girdles, and the upper and lower limbs.
Chapter : The Muscular System and Physiology of Contraction
Muscles are categorized into three distinct types: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle is striated and under voluntary control, smooth muscle is non-striated and involuntary (found in the walls of visceral organs), and cardiac muscle is striated and involuntary, located exclusively in the heart. The muscular system performs four primary functions: producing movement of the body, maintaining posture, stabilizing joints, and generating body heat. Microscopic analysis of muscle tissue focuses on the interaction between myosin fibers (thick filaments) and actin fibers (thin filaments). The sliding filament theory explains how these filaments slide past one another during contraction, shortening the sarcomere without the filaments themselves changing length.
Muscle contraction on a macro level is characterized by varying response types. A Twitch is a single, brief, jerky contraction, while Tetanus refers to a state of continuous, smooth contraction without relaxation, often resulting from rapid stimulation. Graded responses refer to different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening produced by changing the frequency of muscle stimulation or the number of muscle cells being stimulated. Energy to fuel these contractions is generated through three pathways: direct phosphorilation of ADP by creatine phosphate, aerobic respiration (oxidative phosphorylation) which occurs in the mitochondria and requires oxygen, and anaerobic glycolysis/lactic acid formation which occurs when oxygen is limited.
Contraction types are divided into isotonic and isometric categories. In isotonic contractions, the myofilaments slide, the muscle shortens, and movement occurs; in isometric contractions, the muscle does not shorten but tension continues to increase. Students must master various muscle movements including flexion (decreasing the angle of a joint), extension (increasing the angle), and adduction (moving a limb toward the body's midline), among others. The anatomy of the muscular system includes the identification of major muscles located in the head, the trunk, and the limbs.
Chapter : The Nervous System Organization and Functionality
The nervous system is organized structurally into the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), and functionally into the sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) divisions. Neurons and neuroglia serve as the fundamental components of this system; neurons conduct electrical impulses while neuroglia support, insulate, and protect the neurons. Structurally, a neuron consists of a cell body, dendrites (which receive signals), and an axon (which sends signals). Nervous tissue is categorized as gray matter (unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies) or white matter (dense collections of myelinated fibers). Neurons are classified by both structure (unipolar, bipolar, multipolar) and function (sensory, motor, or association neurons).
Physiological characteristics of neurons include irritability (the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse) and conductivity (the ability to transmit that impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands). A reflex arc is the neural pathway that controls a reflex, involving a receptor, a sensory neuron, an integration center within the CNS, a motor neuron, and an effector organ. Within the Central Nervous System, the cerebral hemispheres are the most superior part of the brain and include regions such as the cortex and basal nuclei. The diencephalon sits atop the brain stem and contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The brain stem is comprised of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata, and the Cerebellum provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and coordination.
Protection of the CNS is provided by the meningeal layers (the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater) and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), which circulates to provide a watery cushion. The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain and serves as a major reflex center. The study of the brain also involves understanding various types of brain injuries. In the Peripheral Nervous System, students must understand the structure of a nerve, identify specific cranial nerves, and locate the spinal nerves. Spinal nerves are grouped into four major plexus: the cervical, brachial, lumbar, and sacral plexus. Finally, the autonomic nervous system is examined via its sympathetic and parasympathetic substructures.
Chapter : The Cardiovascular System
The study of the cardiovascular system involves the precise location of the heart within the thorax and the description of its external features, such as the apex and base. Students must trace the total pathway of blood through the heart, beginning with the superior and inferior vena cavae, through the atria and ventricles, and out to the lungs and body. This involves a clear distinction between the pulmonary circuit (the flow of blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the left side) and the systemic circuit (the flow of blood from the left side of the heart through the body tissues and back to the right side).
The mechanical function of the heart relies on the operation of heart valves, which include the atrioventricular (AV) valves (mitral and tricuspid) and the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) that prevent the backflow of blood. Heart sounds are general descriptions of the "lub-dup" sounds caused by the closing of the valves, while murmurs are abnormal or unusual heart sounds resulting from flow interference. Key cardiovascular definitions include Systole (the contraction of the heart ventricles), Diastole (the relaxation of the heart ventricles), and Stroke volume (the volume of blood pumped out by a ventricle with each heartbeat). The cardiac cycle refers to the complete sequence of events of one heartbeat, including the contraction and relaxation of both the atria and the ventricles.