Maize cultivation: The cultivation of maize (corn) by Indigenous peoples in the Americas. It was a staple crop that provided sustenance and formed the basis of agricultural economies in many regions.

Great Basin Anasazi: Anasazi refers to a prehistoric Native American civilization that inhabited the southwestern United States, including parts of present-day Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. The Great Basin Anasazi were a subgroup of the Ancestral Puebloans who lived in the Great Basin region.

Spanish vs. Portuguese exploration: Refers to the exploration efforts of Spain and Portugal during the Age of Discovery (15th to 17th centuries). Spanish exploration focused mainly on the Americas, while Portuguese exploration initially concentrated on finding sea routes to Asia, leading to the discovery of Brazil among other territories.

English vs. French exploration: Refers to the exploration efforts of England and France during the same period. English exploration focused on North America, particularly the eastern coast, while French exploration concentrated on areas such as present-day Canada and the interior of North America.

Encomienda system: A Spanish labor system in the Americas whereby Spanish conquistadors were granted control over Indigenous communities. In exchange for protection and Christianization, the encomenderos (those granted the encomienda) had the right to extract labor and tribute from Indigenous people.

Iroquois Confederacy: Also known as the Haudenosaunee, it was a powerful alliance of Native American tribes in the northeastern United States, consisting of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca nations. The confederacy was established for mutual defense and cooperation.

Mississippian Valley Mound builders: Indigenous cultures that flourished in the Mississippi River Valley and southeastern United States between approximately 800 and 1600 CE. They constructed large earthen mounds for ceremonial, religious, and elite residential purposes.

Three Sisters Farming: A Native American agricultural system that involved the simultaneous planting of maize, beans, and squash. These crops were complementary, with maize providing a structure for beans to climb, beans fixing nitrogen in the soil, and squash providing ground cover to suppress weeds.

Conquistadors: Cortes and Pizarro: Spanish conquerors who led expeditions to the Americas in the 16th century. Hernán Cortés conquered the Aztec Empire in present-day Mexico, while Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire in present-day Peru.

Black Legend: A historiographical term referring to the depiction of Spain and Spaniards as exceptionally cruel and oppressive in their colonization of the Americas. It was a narrative often propagated by rival European powers and has been subject to historical debate.

Pueblo Revolt: Also known as Popé's Rebellion, it was a coordinated uprising of Puebloan peoples against Spanish colonial rule in present-day New Mexico in 1680. Led by the Pueblo religious leader Popé, the revolt resulted in the expulsion of Spanish settlers from the region for over a decade.

Columbian Exchange: The exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and technologies between the Americas and the rest of the world following Christopher Columbus's voyages in 1492. It had a profound impact on global history, leading to demographic, economic, and ecological changes.

Joint Stock Companies/Colony: Business entities formed by investors who pooled their capital to fund colonial ventures. Joint stock companies, such as the Virginia Company, played a significant role in the establishment of English colonies in North America.

Spanish Colonial Class System: A hierarchical social structure established by the Spanish in their American colonies, with Peninsulares (those born in Spain), Criollos (those of Spanish descent born in the Americas), mestizos (people of mixed European and Indigenous ancestry), and Indigenous peoples occupying different levels of society.

Plantation System: A system of agricultural production based on large-scale landownership and the extensive use of forced labor, particularly African slaves, to cultivate cash crops such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton. It was predominant in the Americas, particularly in the Caribbean and southern colonies of North America.

Aztec, Mayan, and Incan Civilizations: Advanced pre-Columbian civilizations that flourished in Mesoamerica (Aztec and Maya) and South America (Inca) prior to the arrival of Europeans. They achieved remarkable developments in architecture, agriculture, mathematics, and art.

Treaty of Tordesillas: A treaty signed in 1494 between Spain and Portugal, mediated by the Pope, to divide the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the two countries along a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands (off the west coast of Africa). It aimed to prevent conflict over territorial claims in the New World.