Political Situations of Countries

i admit this one was made with ½ my notes and ½ chat gpt- some things are worded weird, oopsie

France

• Absolutism was the dominant political system in France, especially under Louis XIV (the "Sun King"). He famously stated, "L'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state"), symbolizing the total control of the monarchy.

• The reign of Louis XIII saw the consolidation of royal power with the help of Cardinal Richelieu, who weakened the nobility and centralized authority. His successor, Cardinal Mazarin, continued this process under the regency of Louis XIV.

• Louis XIV further solidified royal power by using intendants to enforce his policies in the provinces, revoking the Edict of Nantes (1685), which had previously granted religious tolerance to Huguenots (French Protestants).

• The Fronde (a series of civil wars from 1648 to 1653) had been a major challenge to royal authority, but its defeat marked the end of significant noble resistance to the king.

England

• England experienced significant political upheaval in the 17th century, including the English Civil War (1642–1651), which resulted in the execution of Charles I and the rise of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector.

• After Cromwell’s death, the monarchy was restored under Charles II (1660), but tensions between the monarchy and Parliament continued. This culminated in the Glorious Revolution (1688), when James II was overthrown, and William III and Mary II assumed the throne, agreeing to rule as constitutional monarchs.

• The Bill of Rights (1689) was a key document from this period, limiting royal power and ensuring the supremacy of Parliament.

• England moved toward a constitutional monarchy, where the power of the king was balanced by Parliament, marking a significant departure from the absolutist model.

Spain

• Spain, under the Habsburg dynasty, was in decline during the 17th century after its "Golden Age" under rulers like Philip II. By the time of Philip IV (reigned 1621–1665), Spain was embroiled in the costly Thirty Years' War and faced internal challenges from revolts in Catalonia and Portugal.

• The War of Spanish Succession (1701–1714), triggered by the death of Charles II (the last Habsburg king of Spain), marked a critical period for the country. The war ended with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), which installed the Bourbon dynasty (in the person of Philip V) on the Spanish throne but resulted in the loss of several Spanish territories in Europe.

Portugal

• Portugal regained independence from Spain in 1640 after 60 years of Spanish rule under the Iberian Union (1580–1640). The Portuguese Restoration War (1640–1668) culminated in the Treaty of Lisbon, which solidified Portuguese independence.

• After the restoration, the House of Braganza took control, with John IV becoming king. Portugal rebuilt its empire, focusing on colonial trade with Brazil and the East Indies.

• However, the country faced economic difficulties and had a weaker political influence compared to its earlier height during the Age of Exploration.

Netherlands (Dutch Republic)

• The Dutch Republic was a leading commercial and naval power during this period, emerging victorious from the Eighty Years' War (1568–1648) against Spain, which resulted in its independence.

• Politically, the Netherlands was a republic, with power held by provincial assemblies and a central States General, rather than a monarchy. However, the position of stadtholder (usually held by members of the House of Orange) had significant political and military influence.

• The Dutch Republic thrived economically through global trade, led by the Amsterdam Stock Exchange and Dutch East India Company (VOC), and experienced a cultural golden age, exemplified by the works of artists like Rembrandt and Vermeer.

• The Dutch were engaged in several wars with England (the Anglo-Dutch Wars) and France, especially under Louis XIV.

Austria

• Austria was a major power within the Holy Roman Empire, ruled by the Habsburg dynasty. The Habsburgs were also heavily involved in conflicts against the Ottoman Empire and France during the 17th century.

• Leopold I (reigned 1658–1705) was a key figure in consolidating Habsburg power and successfully defending Vienna from the Ottoman siege in 1683. His reign also saw Austrian involvement in the War of Spanish Succession and ongoing conflict with France.

• Austria faced challenges due to its diverse empire, which included various ethnic and religious groups, making centralization difficult. The Habsburgs were committed to maintaining their Catholic faith and opposed the spread of Protestantism within their lands.

Prussia

• Prussia was rising as a major European power during this period, under the leadership of the Hohenzollern dynasty. Frederick William, the "Great Elector" (r. 1640–1688), laid the foundations for a strong Prussian state by centralizing the government, building a strong army, and making alliances with the Junkers (the Prussian nobility).

• His successors, including Frederick I, further developed Prussia’s military and political power. Prussia’s strength would continue to grow, eventually leading to its pivotal role in the unification of Germany in the 19th century.

• The Junkers maintained significant power, particularly in the military and administration, while the Prussian state became known for its militaristic and bureaucratic efficiency.

The Ottoman Empire

• The Ottoman Empire was a dominant power during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, but by the 17th century, it faced internal and external challenges, leading to gradual decline.

• The empire’s military power, once formidable with its elite Janissaries, was increasingly strained, particularly after the failed Siege of Vienna (1683), which marked the beginning of the empire’s territorial retreat.

• Internally, the empire struggled with corruption and inefficiency. The Sultan's authority was undermined by regional governors and military leaders, weakening the central government.

• Despite its decline, the Ottoman Empire remained a significant power, particularly in the eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East, and the Balkans, although it became known as the "sick man of Europe" by the 18th century.

These countries were deeply interconnected through wars, alliances, and shifting power dynamics. The political evolution of each was influenced by their struggles with absolutism, constitutionalism, and religious conflicts.