The rhetorical situation

speaker, purpose, audience, context, exigence (& what each of these mean)

concession

an acknowledgement that an opposing argument may be true or reasonable, usually accompanied by a refutation

refutation

denial of the validity of an opposing argument in part or in whole, usually accompanied by a concession in order to sound more reasonable.

qualify (a claim)

To make a claim about qualities, or what something is, or is caused by, about what something affects, or about the nature or properties of a thing to gain an understanding of underlying reasons, opinions, and motivations. To make a “qualifying claim” is to provide insights into a problem or help to develop ideas or hypotheses or to provide the conditions under which a claim is true.

Aristotelian Triangle

a diagram that illustrates the relationships between speaker, subject, and audience in a rhetorical situation

ethos

Greek for “character”, established of speakers in what they say and who they are; appeals to audience’s trust in the character, authority, or expertise of speaker

logos

Greek for “embodied thought”, appeals to reason and logic by offering clear, rational ideas and using specific details, examples, facts, statistics, or expert testimony as backing for claims; usually primary mode to elicit audience agreement

pathos

Greek for “suffering” or “experience”, appeals to specific emotions like fear, patriotism, prejudices, anger, or hope; usually primary mode to elicit audience action

DICTION, SYNTAX, FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

archaic language

using language that is antiquated (old-fashioned)

Beliefs for which our forebears fought

alliteration

use of words with same consonant sound close together

colloquialism

using language that reflects the way people actually speak (slang)

connotation

the implied or contextualized meaning that underlies the main meaning of a word

denotation

the literal, dictionary definition of a word

jargon

using language that is specific to an occupation or field

repetition

just as it sounds, in order to emphasize or reiterate

vernacular

Using language that is specific to a people, place, culture

cumulative sentence

sentence where main clause is at the beginning and then more is added on

But neither can two great and powerful groups of nations take comfort from our present course -- both sides overburdened by the cost of modern weapons, both rightly alarmed by the steady spread of the deadly atom, yet both racing to alter that uncertain balance of terror that stays the hand of mankind’s final war.

hortative sentence

sentence that exhorts, urges, entreats, implores, or calls to action

Let both sides explore what problems unite us instead of belaboring those problems which divide us.

imperative sentence

sentence that commands or demands

My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what America will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.

periodic sentence

sentence where main clause is withheld until the end

To that world assembly of sovereign states, the United Nations, our last best hope in a new age where the instruments of war have far outpaced the instruments of peace, we renew our pledge of support...

anaphora

repetition of words/phrases at beginning of successive phrases, clauses, lines

...not as a call to bear arms, though arms we need -- not as a call to battle, though embattled we are...

antimetabole/

chiasmus

repetition of words in reverse order

[A]sk not what your country can do for you -- ask what you can do for your country.

antithesis

opposition or contrast of ideas/words in a parallel construction

[W]e shall...support any friend, oppose any foe...

asyndeton

omission of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, words (speeds up)

He eats, drinks, sleeps.

inversion

inverted word order in a sentence (variation on subject-verb order)

Never have I seen such a beautiful sunset.

juxtaposition

placements of two things closely together to emphasize differences

[W]e are the heirs of that first revolution. Let the word go forth… that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans --- born in this century...

parallelism

similarity of structure in a pair or series of related words, phrases, clauses

Let both sides explore...Let both sides, for the first time, formulate serious and precise

proposals...Let both sides seek to invoke...Let both sides unite to heed...

syndeton

addition of multiple conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, words (slows down)

He eats and drinks and sleeps.

alliteration

repetition of the same sound beginning several words or syllables in sequence.

Let us go forth to lead the land we love...

allusion

reference to another source (e.g. Bible, mythology, poem, work of art)

Let both sides unite to heed in all corners of the earth the command of Isaiah...

assonance

repeating vowel sounds

consonance

repetition of identical or similar consonants in neighboring words

epithet

a characterizing word or phrase accompanying or occurring in place of the name; a disparaging or abusive word or phrase

euphemism

the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend

extended metaphor

a comparison between two unlike things that continues throughout a series of sentences

hyperbole

deliberate exaggeration

imagery

descriptive language appealing to all five senses (words used to paint a picture)

metaphor

comparison that replaces one object for another (stronger than simile)

And if a beachhead of cooperation may push back the jungle of suspicion...

metonymy

the substitution of the name for an attribute of the thing meant

“suit” for “business executive”

“the track” for “horse racing”

motif

repeating symbol throughout a text

oxymoron

using two contradictory words next to each other

peaceful revolution

paradox

a statement that seems contradictory or opposed to common sense and yet is perhaps true

personification

describing an inanimate object as if it were a person With history the final judge of our deeds

rhetorical question

posing a question for effect rather than to get an answer

Will you join in that historic effort?

simile

comparison that uses “like” or “as”

symbol

object used to represent an idea/theme

synecdoche

using one part to represent a whole

Nice wheels! (wheels = car)
Boston sweeps the series against the Yankees! (Boston = the baseball team)

tone

author’s attitude toward a subject and/or character

zeugma

using two different meanings of the same word within a sentence/line

When we bear arms, we bear a burden of responsibility (bear used literally and figuratively)

Types of Claims & Evidence

claims of fact

asserts that something is true or not; is arguable on basis of fact

The number of suicides and homicides committed by teenagers, most often young men, has exploded in the last three decades. -Anna Quindlen

claims of value

asserts something is good or bad, right or wrong, or is a cause or effect; draws conclusions from claims of facts.

There’s a plague on all our houses, and since it doesn’t announce itself with lumps or spots or protest marches, it has gone unremarked in the quiet suburbs and busy cities where it has been laying waste. -Anna Quindlen

claims of policy

suggests a course of action as a result of the claims of fact and value

Yet one solution continues to elude us, and that is ending the ignorance about mental health, and moving it from the margins of care and into the mainstream where it belongs. -Anna Quindlen

First-hand evidence

based on something the writer knows from personal experience, observations, or general knowledge of events.

Second-hand evidence

accessed through research, reading, investigation, interviews, polls. . Includes factual and historical information, expert opinion, and quantitative data.

Types of Theses

open

does not list all the points the writer intends to include, is usually inductive in its claim, and suggests a more abstract or universal claim of value

closed

makes a more specific, limited claim of value, includes a list of the main points to follow

counter-argument

usually starts with summary of primary counterargument, is preceded by “but” or “although”, and is usually followed by the writer’s primary claim

Logical Fallacies

ad hominem

(“against the man”) attacking character of speaker instead of addressing topic

A park in the community should not be renovated because the person supporting it was arrested during a domestic dispute.

appeal to false authority

using someone as “expert” who is not actually an expert

Ron Burgundy, a fictional character from the movie Anchorman, advertises for Dodge Durango.

faulty analogy

drawing a comparison between two things that is logically irrelevant

Since we put animals who are in irreversible pain out of their misery, we should do the same for people.

red herrings

introducing new and unrelated topic before addressing argument topic

post hoc ergo propter hoc (faulty causality)

(“after this, therefore because of this”) assuming that

because one event or action follows another, the first causes the second

We elected Johnson as president and look where it got us: hurricanes, floods, stock market crashes.

slippery slope

either/or (false dilemma)

scare tactic that claims one action will lead to another, more extreme action

presenting two extreme options as the only possibilities

Either we agree to higher taxes, or our grandchildren will be mired in debt.

straw man

oversimplifying an example to ridicule or refute opponent

Politician X proposes that we put astronauts on Mars in the next four years. Politician Y ridicules this proposal by saying that his opponent is looking for “little green men in outer space.”

bandwagon appeal

evidence boils down to “everybody’s doing it, so it must be good”

You should vote for Rachel Johnson - she has a strong lead in the polls!

circular reasoning

presenting the claim as if it is the evidence

You can’t give me a C; I’m an A student!

hasty generalization

using a single anecdote or example to make major/larger point

Smoking isn’t bad for you; my great aunt smoked a pack a day and lived to be 90.

stack the deck

argument that shows only one side of the story and refuses to even admit the existence of counterargument