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Fallacies are bad arguments that deceive us, where the inferential chain is broken. Arguments consist of premises leading to a conclusion through inference. Major fallacies are categorized into two families: Inductive and Deductive.

Inductive Fallacies

  1. Fallacies of Relevance: The premises are irrelevant to the conclusion.

    • Ad Hominem: Attacking the opponent's character instead of their argument.

    • Ad Hominem Circumstantial: Attacking the opponent's affiliations instead of their argument.

    • Tu Quo: Attacking an opponent for not following their own advice.

    • Popular Appeal: Persuading based on popularity rather than reasoning.

    • Appeal to Authority: Using an authority figure who lacks expertise.

    • Appeal to Force: Using threats to persuade acceptance of a conclusion.

    • Appeal to Pity: Using pity to support a conclusion.

    • Appeal to Ignorance: Claiming a conclusion is true because it hasn't been disproven.

  2. Fallacies of Presumption: Premises based on bad assumptions.

    • Accident: Misapplying a general rule to a specific case.

    • Hasty Generalization: Using insufficient evidence for a general conclusion.

    • Biased Statistics: Using a study lacking diversity.

    • Bifurcation: Assuming only two extremes exist in a situation.

    • Complex Question: Embedding a hidden question in a larger question.

    • Post Hoc: Assuming causation from correlation.

    • Red Herring: Diverting attention with irrelevant points.

    • Slippery Slope: Arguing that one action will inevitably lead to extreme consequences.

    • Straw Man: Distorting an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.

    • Begging the Question: Circular reasoning where a conclusion is assumed in the premises.

    • False Analogies: Making inappropriate comparisons.

Deductive Fallacies

These are formal fallacies based on incorrect structures.

  • Affirming the Consequent: Assuming the antecedent must be true because the consequent is true.

  • Denying the Antecedent: Assuming that denying the antecedent denies the consequent's truth.

Remember these main points for your test! Focus on identifying different fallacies and understanding their structures.