Civil Rights Movement Overview

Background: Pre-Civil Rights Movement (Pre-1950s)

Racial Segregation and Jim Crow Laws

The Jim Crow Laws were state and local statutes enforced in the Southern United States that perpetuated racial segregation from the late 19th century until the 1960s. This formalized a culture of systemic discrimination against African Americans across various life aspects, including education, housing, employment, public facilities, and voting.

Separate but Equal Doctrine

The Supreme Court’s 1896 ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson established the "Separate but Equal" doctrine, which legitimized the segregation of public facilities, erroneously positing that segregated facilities for blacks and whites were "equal," despite the tangible disparities between them.

Voting Rights Denial

To maintain oppression, mechanisms like poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation tactics were implemented to disenfranchise African Americans, particularly in the South.

Early Resistance Movements

NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People)

Founded in 1909, the NAACP was instrumental in confronting segregation through legal challenges. One significant victory was in Guinn v. United States (1915), which abolished the grandfather clause utilized to disenfranchise black voters.

Harlem Renaissance (1920s)

This cultural and intellectual movement celebrated Black culture and laid the groundwork for future civil rights activism, highlighting the richness of African American art and literature.

The Rise of the Civil Rights Movement (1950s-1960s)

Post-WWII Climate

The aftermath of World War II ushered in a greater awareness of racial inequalities, particularly as African American veterans returned to a nation that still oppressed them. The broader context of the Cold War exposed the contradictions in America's self-proclaimed democratic ideals, particularly juxtaposed against its systemic racism.

Key Events

Brown v. Board of Education (1954)

This landmark Supreme Court case declared the establishment of state laws that promoted separate public schools for black and white students unconstitutional, directly challenging the Plessy v. Ferguson doctrine. It underscored the notion that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."

Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956)

This boycott, ignited by Rosa Parks's refusal to surrender her bus seat to a white individual, marked a pivotal moment in civil rights activism. Led by Martin Luther King Jr., the boycott resulted in severe financial repercussions on the bus system and culminated in a Supreme Court ruling declaring bus segregation unconstitutional in Montgomery.

Formation of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) (1957)

Founded by Martin Luther King Jr. and other religious leaders, the SCLC focused on nonviolent resistance to segregation, becoming a fundamental organization aiding the civil rights movement.

Little Rock Nine (1957)

When nine African American students tried to integrate Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, they faced violent opposition, necessitating the federal government’s intervention to uphold civil rights, thereby exposing the intense resistance to desegregation.

The 1960s: A Decade of Change

Freedom Rides (1961)

Organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), these rides involved interracial groups traveling through the South to challenge and highlight the noncompliance of segregated bus terminals. Activists faced violent opposition, including firebombings, yet these rides drew national attention to segregation’s violation of federal law.

March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom (1963)

During this pivotal event, which attracted over 250,000 attendees, Martin Luther King Jr. delivered his iconic "I Have a Dream" speech. The march emphasized economic justice and racial equality, significantly increasing pressure on the federal government to enact civil rights legislation.

Birmingham Campaign (1963)

King and the SCLC’s efforts to desegregate Birmingham’s public facilities were met with brutal police violence, garnering national outrage and prompting action from the Kennedy administration.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

This landmark legislation prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. It effectively ended segregation in public places, guaranteed equal access to public facilities, and curtailed employment discrimination.

Freedom Summer (1964)

This initiative aimed to enhance voter registration among African Americans in Mississippi, which had notably low registration rates. Volunteers, including Northern students, faced significant violence, and the murder of three civil rights workers highlighted the dire need for greater federal action in safeguarding voting rights.

The Voting Rights Movement and Continued Struggles (1965-1968)

Selma to Montgomery March (1965)

These marches were organized to protest the suppression of voting rights in the South. The particularly brutal response to the first march, known as "Bloody Sunday," spurred the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which aimed to eradicate barriers to voting, such as literacy tests and poll taxes.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

This essential legislation prohibited discriminatory voting practices and established federal oversight to prevent African American disenfranchisement.

Urban Riots and Black Power (1965-1968)

Dissatisfaction with the slow pace of progress and ongoing economic inequality led to urban riots in cities like Watts (1965) and Detroit (1967). The Black Power movement, articulated by leaders like Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X, advocated for a more assertive approach toward civil rights, with the Black Panther Party (founded in 1966) promoting armed self-defense in impoverished African American communities.

Major Figures in the Civil Rights Movement

Martin Luther King Jr.

The quintessential leader of the Civil Rights Movement, King advocated for nonviolent protest and civil disobedience, famously delivering the "I Have a Dream" speech at the March on Washington in 1963.

Rosa Parks

Her act of defiance on a segregated bus became a critical catalyst for the movement, inspiring the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

Malcolm X

Initially associated with the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X later emphasized black self-determination and nationalism, advocating for the use of any means necessary for self-defense. His perspectives significantly influenced the Black Power movement.

Thurgood Marshall

As a key NAACP lawyer, Marshall won numerous pivotal cases before the Supreme Court, including Brown v. Board of Education, and later became the first African American Supreme Court Justice.

Medgar Evers

An NAACP activist in Mississippi, Evers's assassination in 1963 became a rallying point for civil rights support, further galvanizing the movement.