Research_Methods_2_-_Summary__1_
Research Methods
The Research Cycle
Understanding the research cycle is fundamental in the field of research methods.
Paradigms
Definition: A paradigm is a set of beliefs that shapes the way one makes sense of the world.
Four Basic Paradigms in Science (Guba and Lincoln):
Positivism
Post-positivism
Critical Theory
Constructivism
Worldviews
Positivism/Post-positivism: Assumes an objective reality that can be understood through objective findings.
Critical/Constructivist Paradigms:
Rejects an 'objective' truth, perceiving the world as constantly changing and subjective.
Methodologies
Positivist and Post-positivist: Typically use quantitative methodologies.
Critical Theory and Constructivism: Typically use qualitative methodologies.
Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative Research Questions Must Be:
Descriptive: What is happening?
Exploratory: How are things working?
Explanatory: Why are things working as they are?
Data Types:
Qualitative Data: Text
Quantitative Data: Numbers
Role of Researcher:
Qualitative: Researcher is part of reality.
Quantitative: Researcher is outside of reality.
Epistemology:
Qualitative: Interpretive
Quantitative: Positivistic
Goal:
Qualitative: Depth
Quantitative: Breadth (generalization)
Methods:
Qualitative: Interviews, observations, document analysis.
Quantitative: Surveys, statistical analysis.
Epistemologies of Qualitative Research
Essential Questions in Urban Research
What do I see?
How am I going to study it?
What do I miss?
Key Research Paradigms in Qualitative Research
Positivism
Postpositivism
Critical Theory
Constructivism
Basis Beliefs of Key Paradigms
Realism: Reality independent of human consciousness.
Apprehendable: Reality is observable.
Relativism: Reality is not independent but dependent upon other factors.
Dialogic: Focus on dialogue.
Dialectical: Dialogue between differing viewpoints.
Hermeneutical: Emphasizes interpretation.
Terminologies
Ontology: The way you see the world.
Epistemology: The way you study the world.
Methodology: The methods used for research.
Trustworthy Data Criteria (for (Post)positivism)
Reliable
Valid
Objective
Replicable
Differences in Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology:
Paradigm | Ontology | Epistemology | Methodology |
|---|---|---|---|
Positivism | Naïve realism | Objective | Experimental |
Postpositivism | Critical realism | Modified objective | Modified experimental |
Critical Theory | Historical realism | Subjective | Dialogic and dialectical |
Constructivism | Relativism | Subjective | Hermeneutical and dialectical |
Trustworthy Data Criteria in Critical Theory/Constructivism
Communicative validation
Triangulation
Validation of interview settings
Authenticity
Postmodern rejections and first-person writing style.
Advanced Interviewing Skills
Types of Interviews
Closed interview
Open interview
Semi-structured interview
Narrative interview
Life history interview
Focus group interview
Mental mapping
Go-along interview
Goals of Interviewing
To obtain information, opinions, experiences, locations, emotions, and behaviors.
Goal of Opinion: Least interesting due to limited value.
Types of People to Interview
Elite interviews
Expert interviews
Stakeholder interviews
Characteristics of Interviews
Elite Interviews:
Can have formal/informal roles.
Provide institutional information.
Hold power in policy and planning.
Expert Interviews:
Hold scientific/practice knowledge.
Were involved in prior research.
Sampling Questions
Why?
How?
How many?
Representative?
Purposive Sampling Question
Who is the best person for information about this problem?
Probability Sampling and Saturation
Probability Sampling
Useful for surveys to ensure representativeness.
Saturation Concepts
Empirical Saturation: No new data emerges.
Theoretical Saturation: All operational elements filled with data.
Interview Questions Types
Introduction, follow-ups, probing, specifying, direct, indirect, structuring questions.
Interview Preparation Steps
Obtaining informed consent.
Making agreements on anonymity and quotes.
Taping interviews if allowed.
Types of Interviews Characteristics
Closed Interview: Limited improvisation, direct structure.
Semi-Structured Interview: More room for follow-up and probing questions.
First Steps in an Interview
Prepare item list.
Semi-Structured Interview Requirements
Clear and understandable.
Directly related to the topic.
Ask one question at a time.
Avoid assumptions and leading questions.
Use acceptable terms in community vernacular.
Phrased as open-ended invitations.
Narrative Interview
Definition and Use Cases
An interview that asks for a story.
Used to understand processes and perspectives.
Preparation for Narrative Interview
Prepare starting questions and topics.
Trust Requirements in Narrative Interviews
Essential to ensure open dialogue and sharing.
Post-Narrative Interview Steps
Context and performance description of storytelling.
Mental Mapping and Observations
Goals of Mental Mapping
Understand subjective perceptions.
Insight into bureaucratic strategies vs. everyday experiences.
Process of Mental Mapping
Be present and ask descriptive questions.
Post-Mapping Analysis
Analyze narrative and mapping relationship.
Ethnography Fundamentals
Ethnographic Fieldwork Activities
Gaining access and observing.
Conversing and gathering documents.
Making fieldnotes.
Ethnography Definition
Immersive social setting observation.
Goals of Urban Ethnographers
Understanding urban social life and influences on space.
Emic vs. Etic Approaches
Emic: Local perspective.
Etic: Observer's perspective.
Ethnography Critique
Subjectivity and lack of validation compared to quantitative studies.
Participant Observations
Goals
Thick description of social interactions.
Fieldwork Plan Requirements
Unit of analysis, places to observe, and interview subjects.
Note-taking in Participant Observations
Types
Fieldnotes, Diary, Logbook.
Characteristics of Fieldnotes
Should be descriptive, not value-loaded or vague.
Thematic Analysis
Importance of Method
Demonstrates credibility and systematic approach.
Characteristics of Thematic Analysis
Flexible, captures themes, highlights discrepancies.
Phases of Thematic Analysis
Familiarize with data.
Generate initial codes.
Search for themes.
Review themes.
Determine and name themes.
Produce a report.
Reflection on Findings and Ethics
Ethical Considerations
Procedural ethics vs. ethics in practice.
Fieldwork Ethics Considerations
Managing consent, objectivity, impact on individuals.
Requirements for Reflecting on Interviews and Observations
Analyze the impact of researcher's role.
Synergy in Research Projects
Essential components: Research Question, Concepts, Methods.
Quantitative Research
Benefits of Quantitative Methods
Facilitate personal research and understanding.
Data Types and Validity
Random and representative samples for valid conclusions.
Variables and Their Functions
Dependent (Y) vs. Independent (X) variables.
Correlations in Multivariate Analysis
Types include spurious, mediation, moderation.
Categorical vs. Ordinal Variables
Nominal: No order; Ordinal: Has order.
Examples: Gender (nominal), Education Level (ordinal).
Linear Regression (OLS)
Guidelines for Use
Applicable when the dependent variable is continuous.
Categorical Variables
Dummy codes for inclusion.
Logistic Regression
Popular for binary outcomes; includes coefficients interpretations.
GIS Overview
Vector-GIS Functions
Selecting by attribute/location, adding fields, analyzing geometry.
Raster-GIS Functions
Distance calculations, reclassifying data, zonal statistics.
GIS Accuracy
Raster-GIS more accurate for population data due to its resolution.
Conclusion
GIS is powerful in analyzing urban issues when applied critically alongside various research methods.