Research_Methods_2_-_Summary__1_

Research Methods

The Research Cycle

• Understanding the research cycle is fundamental in the field of research methods.

Paradigms

• Definition: A paradigm is a set of beliefs that shapes the way one makes sense of the world.

• Four Basic Paradigms in Science (Guba and Lincoln):

  • Positivism

  • Post-positivism

  • Critical Theory

  • Constructivism

Worldviews

• Positivism/Post-positivism: Assumes an objective reality that can be understood through objective findings.

• Critical/Constructivist Paradigms:

  • Rejects an 'objective' truth, perceiving the world as constantly changing and subjective.

Methodologies

• Positivist and Post-positivist: Typically use quantitative methodologies.

• Critical Theory and Constructivism: Typically use qualitative methodologies.

Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Data

• Qualitative Research Questions Must Be:

  • Descriptive: What is happening?

  • Exploratory: How are things working?

  • Explanatory: Why are things working as they are?

• Data Types:

  • Qualitative Data: Text

  • Quantitative Data: Numbers

• Role of Researcher:

  • Qualitative: Researcher is part of reality.

  • Quantitative: Researcher is outside of reality.

• Epistemology:

  • Qualitative: Interpretive

  • Quantitative: Positivistic

• Goal:

  • Qualitative: Depth

  • Quantitative: Breadth (generalization)

• Methods:

  • Qualitative: Interviews, observations, document analysis.

  • Quantitative: Surveys, statistical analysis.

Epistemologies of Qualitative Research

Essential Questions in Urban Research

• What do I see?

• How am I going to study it?

• What do I miss?

Key Research Paradigms in Qualitative Research

• Positivism

• Postpositivism

• Critical Theory

• Constructivism

Basis Beliefs of Key Paradigms

• Realism: Reality independent of human consciousness.

• Apprehendable: Reality is observable.

• Relativism: Reality is not independent but dependent upon other factors.

• Dialogic: Focus on dialogue.

• Dialectical: Dialogue between differing viewpoints.

• Hermeneutical: Emphasizes interpretation.

Terminologies

• Ontology: The way you see the world.

• Epistemology: The way you study the world.

• Methodology: The methods used for research.

Trustworthy Data Criteria (for (Post)positivism)

• Reliable

• Valid

• Objective

• Replicable

Differences in Ontology, Epistemology, and Methodology:

Trustworthy Data Criteria in Critical Theory/Constructivism

• Communicative validation

• Triangulation

• Validation of interview settings

• Authenticity

• Postmodern rejections and first-person writing style.

Advanced Interviewing Skills

Types of Interviews

• Closed interview

• Open interview

• Semi-structured interview

• Narrative interview

• Life history interview

• Focus group interview

• Mental mapping

• Go-along interview

Goals of Interviewing

• To obtain information, opinions, experiences, locations, emotions, and behaviors.

• Goal of Opinion: Least interesting due to limited value.

Types of People to Interview

• Elite interviews

• Expert interviews

• Stakeholder interviews

Characteristics of Interviews

• Elite Interviews:

  • Can have formal/informal roles.

  • Provide institutional information.

  • Hold power in policy and planning.

• Expert Interviews:

  • Hold scientific/practice knowledge.

  • Were involved in prior research.

Sampling Questions

• Why?

• How?

• How many?

• Representative?

Purposive Sampling Question

• Who is the best person for information about this problem?

Probability Sampling and Saturation

Probability Sampling

• Useful for surveys to ensure representativeness.

Saturation Concepts

• Empirical Saturation: No new data emerges.

• Theoretical Saturation: All operational elements filled with data.

Interview Questions Types

• Introduction, follow-ups, probing, specifying, direct, indirect, structuring questions.

Interview Preparation Steps

• Obtaining informed consent.

• Making agreements on anonymity and quotes.

• Taping interviews if allowed.

Types of Interviews Characteristics

• Closed Interview: Limited improvisation, direct structure.

• Semi-Structured Interview: More room for follow-up and probing questions.

First Steps in an Interview

• Prepare item list.

Semi-Structured Interview Requirements

• Clear and understandable.

• Directly related to the topic.

• Ask one question at a time.

• Avoid assumptions and leading questions.

• Use acceptable terms in community vernacular.

• Phrased as open-ended invitations.

Narrative Interview

Definition and Use Cases

• An interview that asks for a story.

• Used to understand processes and perspectives.

Preparation for Narrative Interview

• Prepare starting questions and topics.

Trust Requirements in Narrative Interviews

• Essential to ensure open dialogue and sharing.

Post-Narrative Interview Steps

• Context and performance description of storytelling.

Mental Mapping and Observations

Goals of Mental Mapping

• Understand subjective perceptions.

• Insight into bureaucratic strategies vs. everyday experiences.

Process of Mental Mapping

• Be present and ask descriptive questions.

Post-Mapping Analysis

• Analyze narrative and mapping relationship.

Ethnography Fundamentals

Ethnographic Fieldwork Activities

• Gaining access and observing.

• Conversing and gathering documents.

• Making fieldnotes.

Ethnography Definition

• Immersive social setting observation.

Goals of Urban Ethnographers

• Understanding urban social life and influences on space.

Emic vs. Etic Approaches

• Emic: Local perspective.

• Etic: Observer's perspective.

Ethnography Critique

• Subjectivity and lack of validation compared to quantitative studies.

Participant Observations

Goals

• Thick description of social interactions.

Fieldwork Plan Requirements

• Unit of analysis, places to observe, and interview subjects.

Note-taking in Participant Observations

Types

• Fieldnotes, Diary, Logbook.

Characteristics of Fieldnotes

• Should be descriptive, not value-loaded or vague.

Thematic Analysis

Importance of Method

• Demonstrates credibility and systematic approach.

Characteristics of Thematic Analysis

• Flexible, captures themes, highlights discrepancies.

Phases of Thematic Analysis

1. Familiarize with data.

2. Generate initial codes.

3. Search for themes.

4. Review themes.

5. Determine and name themes.

6. Produce a report.

Reflection on Findings and Ethics

Ethical Considerations

• Procedural ethics vs. ethics in practice.

Fieldwork Ethics Considerations

• Managing consent, objectivity, impact on individuals.

Requirements for Reflecting on Interviews and Observations

• Analyze the impact of researcher's role.

Synergy in Research Projects

• Essential components: Research Question, Concepts, Methods.

Quantitative Research

Benefits of Quantitative Methods

• Facilitate personal research and understanding.

Data Types and Validity

• Random and representative samples for valid conclusions.

Variables and Their Functions

• Dependent (Y) vs. Independent (X) variables.

Correlations in Multivariate Analysis

• Types include spurious, mediation, moderation.

Categorical vs. Ordinal Variables

• Nominal: No order; Ordinal: Has order.

• Examples: Gender (nominal), Education Level (ordinal).

Linear Regression (OLS)

Guidelines for Use

• Applicable when the dependent variable is continuous.

Categorical Variables

• Dummy codes for inclusion.

Logistic Regression

• Popular for binary outcomes; includes coefficients interpretations.

GIS Overview

Vector-GIS Functions

• Selecting by attribute/location, adding fields, analyzing geometry.

Raster-GIS Functions

• Distance calculations, reclassifying data, zonal statistics.

GIS Accuracy

• Raster-GIS more accurate for population data due to its resolution.

Conclusion

• GIS is powerful in analyzing urban issues when applied critically alongside various research methods.