Untitled Flashcards Set

Chapter 1:

  • Be Able To Define The Terms – Anatomy, Physiology, Homeostasis and,

“Principle of Complementarity” – Structure depends on Physiology and Physiology depends on Structure

  • Know the levels of structural organization – molecular to organismal and everything in between.

    Molecular – molecules responsible for metabolic processes within the cells

          Cells – the different types of cells within the body is where we find the beginning of “anatomy &   

          physiology” 

          Tissues – comprised of “similar” cells joined together for a common function

          Organs – different types of tissues which make up the “anatomy” of the organ for a specific “physiology”

          Organ Systems – different organs working together in a symbiotic relationship

          Organism – all of the organ systems striving to achieve “homeostasis” in you and me. The failure of one 

          system can ultimately lead to the systemic or overall failure of each system in the body and therefore by a 

          lethal condition

  • Integumentary System – The 1st Line Of Defense, or the first opportunity to keep pathogens outside the body.  Composed of skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair and nails.  Vitamin D may be synthesized from the integumentary system under UV irradiation (sunlight).

  • Skeletal System – Bones, cartilage and ligaments.  Protects and supports body organs.  Site of blood cell formation.  Stores minerals.

  • Muscular System – Muscles and tendons.  Maintains posture and generates heat as a result of muscle contraction.

  • Nervous System –  Brain, spinal column and nerves.  Fast acting control and communication system of the body.  Responds to stimulation through receptors and activates muscles and glands.

  • Know the characteristics of life discussed in class under “Necessary Life Functions.”

  • What were the items listed under “Survival Needs”?

  • Understand the 3 interdependent components of the “Homeostatic Control Mechanisms”  

      and the role or responsibilities of each component.    1) Receptor   2) Control center   3) Effector

  • What is the difference between a “Negative” feedback system and a “Positive” feedback system?  The majority of homeostatic control mechanisms in the human body follow the pathway of a negative feedback system.

   

Examples of “Positive Feedback Systems” in the body are in the regulation of blood clotting by platelets   

and through the action of the hormone, “Oxytocin” which stimulates uterine contraction and milk ejection from the mammary glands for the nursing infant.

  • Be able to describe the correct anatomical position.  Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward and the thumbs pointing away from the body.

  • Be able to relate the location of one structure relative to another by directional terms;

         Superior/Inferior, Anterior/Posterior, Medial/Lateral/Intermediate, Proximal/Distal, Superficial/Deep  

  • We talked about a specific anomaly to textbook layout of anatomical structures known as

 “Situs Inversus”.  How would you define this condition and what effect does it generally have on an   

  individual’s production of cilia and flagella in their body? 

  

  • List the 4 abdominopelvic quadrants and the principle underlying structures listed in your notes. 

      Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ) - ?               Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ) - ?

      Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ) -  ?              Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ) - ?

           

Chapter 2:

  • The 4 major elements of the human body are carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N)

 

  • Understand and discuss the difference between ionic, covalent and hydrogen bonds specifically as it refers to the sharing of electrons and the formation, or not, of ionic charges.

  • Ionic bonds – form crystals and the salts of the body (Na+Cl-) with ionic charges resulting from the “unequal” sharing of electrons.

  • Covalent bonds – form the gases (oxygen, methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide gases) within the body without forming ionic compounds due to the “equal” sharing of electrons.

  • Hydrogen bonds – associated with formation of water. Weak polar bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms.  Creates the surface tension in water and gives the water molecules a 3-deminsional shape.

  • Qualities & Characteristics of Water – Reactivity, Cushioning, High Heat Capacity, Polar Solvent Property

  • Enzymes – Proteins which function as chemical catalysts to increase the rate of reactions without being chemically altered themselves.  Function by lowering the energy of activation.  

      Enzymes are the largest group of proteins we make (synthesize) in the body.

  • Acids & Acidic Solutions – Elevated concentration of H+ ions therefore are proton donors, decreasing the pH (towards 0 on the pH scale.)  Example;  HCl →  ↑ H+ + Cl-

  • Bases & Alkaline Solutions – Decreased concentration of H+ ions and increasing OH-  ions therefore increasing the pH (towards 14 on the pH scale.)  Bases are proton acceptors.

Example;  NaOH → Na+ + ↑OH-    

The hydroxyl ions [OH-] can accept (buffer) the [H+] ions forming water [H2O],  H+ + OH- → H2O

  • pH Scale; An exponential scale ranging from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. 0-6.99 = acidic, 7.01-14 = basic

  • Normal pH for human blood = approx. 7.4 (7.35 – 7.45)

  • Types of Energy -  Potential Energy – Stored energy   &    Kinetic Energy – Energy in motion

  • The conversion of Stored Energy to Kinetic Energy:  Laws of Thermodynamics

    First Law Of Thermodynamics –  Energy can be transferred and transformed but cannot by created or   

    destroyed.

    Second Law Of Thermodynamics -  Energy conversions result in an increase in disorder or “entropy”.

  • Primary Organic Compounds in The Human Body – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids etc.

  1. Carbohydrates – monosaccharides (simple sugars) are a major source of cellular food

  2. Lipids – includes neutral fats, phospholipids, steroids, fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K)

  3. Proteins - Are the most abundant and important organic molecules.  Contain basic elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N)  

There are 20 amino acids in the human body that combine to form proteins

    Major Protein Functions; 

      1)  Support – Structural proteins

      2)  Movement - Contractile proteins

      3)  Transport - Carrier Proteins

      4)  Metabolic Regulation – Enzymes

      5)  Hormones

      6)  Defense - Antibodies

                Linking 2 or more amino acids is done through a “peptide bond”.

                Polypeptides – multiple amino acids peptide bonded together.  Also known as a “Protein Precursor”

          Structural Levels of Polypeptides/Protein Precursors/Proteins

  1. Primary –  amino acid sequence

  2. Secondary –  alpha helices or beta pleated sheets

  3. Tertiary –  superimposed folding of secondary structures

  4. Quaternary –  polypeptide chains linked together in a specific manner

Protein Denaturation -  a non-homeostatic reversible unfolding of a protein due to an acidic condition      or an elevated temperature.

          4)  Nucleic Acids -  made in part with the nitrogenous bases Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), Adenine (A), 

               Thymine (T) (DNA only), and Uracil (U) (RNA only)

                   Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) -  Double-stranded helical molecule found in the nucleus of the cell.

 Replicates itself before the cell divides, ensuring genetic continuity

 Provides instructions for protein synthesis

                   Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) -  Single stranded molecule found both in the nucleus and in the 

                   cytoplasm.   Uses the nitrogenous base “Uracil (U)” instead of  “Thymine (T)”

                 Complementary Base Pair Rules – 

                      DNA - Adenine (A) bonds to thymine (T) 

Cytosine (C) bonds to guanine (G)

                   RNA - Uracil (U) replaces thymine (T)

           5)  Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) – Adenine (nucleotide) with 3 phosphate groups attached.

                Source of immediately usable cellular energy.

Chapter 3:

  • What does the “Cell Theory” state? 

  • Describe the plasma membrane and what is meant by “fluid mosaic model”.

Hydrophilic – “Water Liking or Attracting.”  The polar heads of the phospholipids on the extracellular and intracellular sides.

Hydrophobic – “Water Fearing.”  The tail pieces of the phospholipids in the middle region of the plasma membrane.

  • What are the functions of membrane bound proteins? Receptors, transporters, enzymes and what other functions listed in your notes?

  • Diffusion – movement of molecules (solutes) from higher to lower concentration.

                         “Down a concentration gradient”

  • What is “facilitated diffusion”? 

  • What would be the typical characteristic features of products which can pass across the plasma or cell membrane by “simple diffusion” vs. those things which must make use of a carrier protein? 

               The hydrophobic nature of the phospholipids requires that products be; 

                 1) Non-polar 

                 2) Lipid soluble 

                 3) Small molecular weight.

            Things that are water soluble and have a polar charge to them would be repelled by the hydrophobic

            region and need to be facilitated by a carrier protein.

              

  • Osmosis – movement of solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane

  • What do the terms, Hypertonic, Hypotonic, & Isotonic mean? 

   Which way will water move if placed into each of the above environments and what will become of

         the cell’s anatomy and therefore it’s physiology?  

Water will always move towards the “hypertonic” environment!

  • What is “active transport”?  Does it require energy?

  • Know the primary functions or actions of the following;

Cytoplasm – space between nucleus and plasma membrane. 

Cytosol – Primarily water based with dissolved solutes (proteins, salts, sugars, etc.)

Mitochondria – ATP generation.  Maximum amount of ATP production occurs in the

      “aerobic state” meaning sufficient oxygen being supplied to the cells.

Ribosomes – Site of protein synthesis

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) – Rough due to the presence of ribosomes on the surface of the ER membrane. Functions for the purpose of protein synthesis

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum – Calcium storage

Lysosomes – Contain digestive enzymes to prevent waste and toxic buildup within the cell 

Cytoskeleton – Provides structure, conformity, and integrity to the cell.

Centrioles – Produce mitotic spindles during mitosis and form the bases of cilia & flagella

Cilia – Numerous short hair-like fibers with a distinct motor activity and the ability to move             

substances around the cell

Golgi Apparatus – Functions in the modification, concentration, and packaging of proteins

            Nucleus – Contains genetic information. 

Nucleoli – Site of ribosome production.

  • Cell Cycle – 90% Interphase, 10% Mitotic phase.  (See figure of Cell Cycle below)

        S Phase (of interphase) – period of DNA replication

        Contains check points or processes at various stages of cycle to arrest defective cells from dividing.

  • p53 – Gene segment for producing the p53 protein which is the primary “tumor suppressor protein” located along the cell cycle.  p53 is capable of initiating repair mechanisms should improper DNA replication occur or if necessary, stopping the cell cycle from proceeding therefore killing the cell.

  • Cell Division or “Mitosis” – Necessary for body growth and tissue repair.

  • The phases of “Mitosis” –  Know these primary features of each phase of Mitosis.

                                                        (See figures of stages of Mitosis below)

        Prophase – chromosomes form, nuclear envelope disappears, mitotic spindles begin to 

        radiate out from the centrioles.

        Metaphase – chromosomes align down the center or equator of the cell which is referred to 

        as the “Metaphase Plate”.

        Anaphase – centromeres of the chromosomes split with the original and replicated arms of 

        the homologous chromosomes separating.

        Telophase –  chromosomes revert back to chromatin form and the nuclear envelope reforms.  

        Cytokinesis -  Cytoplasm is divided into the 2 new genetically identical daughter cells.

  • Factors controlling cell division – Growth factors (growth hormones), contact inhibition where mitosis slows once newly formed cells make contact with remaining normal cells. Also, the  “p53 protein” may allow or inhibit mitosis to occur depending on if DNA replication occurred correctly as described above.

  • Synthesis of Proteins: 

  Transcription – transcribing DNA segment into a segment of mRNA within the nucleus.

  Translation – mRNA translates the gene code into a specific string of amino acids called the 

                         polypeptide, a protein precursor.  Takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell.

  • Developmental Aspects of Cells – All cells of the body contain the full complement of your DNA (diploid).  During the early “embryonic” period of gestation, these undifferentiated cells are what are known as the “embryonic stem cells.”  Specific chemical signals then direct them into the various committed cell types of the body.