biomed EOC
What physiological responses are measured during a polygraph test?
Physiological responses include heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, and galvanic skin response.
Why is it important to establish baselines during a polygraph test?
Establishing baselines allows for comparison against the physiological responses during questioning to determine truthfulness.
Are polygraph tests 100% reliable?
No, polygraph tests are not 100% reliable; they can produce false positives and negatives.
What is a testable hypothesis?
A testable hypothesis is a specific, measurable prediction about the outcome of an experiment.
Differentiate between independent and dependent variables.
The independent variable is manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.
What is a control in an experiment?
A control is a standard for comparison that remains constant and is not exposed to the experimental treatment.
What are the three main parts of hair?
Cuticle, Cortex, and Medulla.
Arch Fingerprint Pattern
ridge lines that enter from one side and exit the other side
Loop fingerprint pattern
prints that recurve back on themselves to form a loop shape
Whorl fingerprint pattern
form circular or spiral patterns, like tiny whirlpools.
What is fingerprint minutiae?
Fingerprint minutiae are the unique ridge patterns and characteristics found in fingerprints.
How many minutiae must be matched to establish an identical fingerprint?
Typically, 12 matching minutiae are required to establish an identical fingerprint.
What are the four main components of blood and their functions?
Red blood cells (carry oxygen)
white blood cells (immune response),
platelets (clotting)
plasma (transport nutrients and waste).
Compare presumptive tests and confirmatory tests in blood analysis.
Presumptive tests indicate the presence of blood, while confirmatory tests definitively identify blood and type.
What are antigens?
Antigens are substances that trigger an immune response, often found on the surface of cells.
Which antigens do people with blood type A have?
People with blood type A have A antigens on their cells.
Which antigens do people with blood type B have?
People with blood type B have B antigens on their cells.
Which antigens do people with blood type AB have?
People with blood type AB have both A and B antigens on their cells.
Which antigens do people with blood type O have?
People with blood type O have no A or B antigens on their cells.
How do height and angle affect blood spatter analysis?
Height affects the size and shape of the blood droplets, while angle affects the pattern and distribution of the spatter.
What are the three components of a nucleotide?
A nucleotide consists of a phosphate group, a sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
How do the bases of DNA pair together?
Adenine pairs with Thymine, and Cytosine pairs with Guanine.
Define a gene.
A gene is a segment of DNA that contains the instructions for building a protein.
What is a chromosome?
A chromosome is a structure made of DNA and proteins that contains genetic information.
Explain the relationship between DNA, genes, and chromosomes
genes are parts of DNA, and chromosomes are structures that house the DNA, including all the genes
Differentiate between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while prokaryotic cells do not.
describe the process of PCR
a) A reaction mixture is set up containing the DNA sample, free DNA nucleotides,
primers and DNA polymerase
b) Mixture heated to 95oC - to separate the DNA strands by breaking the hydrogen
bonds, resulting in two template strands.
c) Mixture cooled to 55oC - primers to anneal (join) to each template strand.
d) Mixture heated to 72oC - DNA polymerase joins the lined up complementary
nucleotides alongside each template strand to form two new complementary DNA
strands.
e) Cycle starts again, this time all four strands (two original & two new) are used as
templates.
f) The cycle is repeated many times, each cycle doubles the amount of DNA.
describe the process of restriction enzymes
1. Recognition of Specific DNA Sequences:
- Restriction enzymes scan a DNA molecule for a specific sequence of nucleotides.
-This specific sequence is called a recognition site.
-Many recognition sites are palindromic—the sequence reads the same forward and backward on opposite strands
2. Binding to DNA:
Once the enzyme finds its recognition site, it binds to the DNA at that location.
3. Cutting the DNA:
-The enzyme cleaves both strands of the DNA at or near the recognition site.
-There are two main types of cuts:
Blunt ends: Straight cuts across both DNA strands.
Sticky ends: Staggered cuts that leave single-stranded overhangs. These overhangs can easily pair with complementary DNA strands.
4. Result:
- The DNA is now in pieces, with ends that can be joined with other DNA fragments cut by the same enzyme.
- This is useful in genetic engineering—for example, inserting a gene into a plasmid.
Explain the process of gel electrophoresis
- Once the DNA profile produced
- DNA fragments placed in wells
containing agarose gel and buffering solution (PH)
-ethidium bromide dye binds to DNA fragments in gel (allowing it to fluoresce under UV light )
- visible dye added moves through gel faster then DNA (current turn off before sample runs off end )
- electric current turned on
- DNA fragment moves towards cathode due to being negative
-Turn on UV light to identify DNA
- fragments move at different speeds due to size, charge
Write the complementary strand for the DNA sequence A T G G C G G C C T T A A G C A T G G C G A A T G.
T A C C G C C G G A A T T C G T A C C G C T T A C.
If the restriction enzyme HAEIII cuts between bases GG-CC, how many RFLPs will be created?
Two RFLPs will be created from the strand.
During gel electrophoresis, in which direction do DNA fragments move and why?
DNA fragments move towards the positive electrode because DNA is negatively charged.
Which DNA fragments will move through the gel faster?
Smaller DNA fragments will move through the gel faster than larger fragments.
Define cause of death and give examples
Cause of Death- The specific injury, disease, or condition that directly leads to death.
Examples: Heart attack, gunshot wound, cancer.
Define manner of death and give examples
Manner of Death-The category that explains how the death happened.
Examples- Natural, Accidental, Homicide, Suicide, Undetermined
define mechanism of death
Mechanism of Death- The specific physiological change in the body that causes death.
Examples: Blood loss (hemorrhage), respiratory failure, cardiac arrest.
What is the function of the cardiovascular system? give examples
What is the function of the urinary system? give examples
what is the function of the respiratory system? give examples
What is the function of the digestive system? give examples
What is the function of the immune system? give examples
What is the function of the nervous system? give examples
What is the function of the endocrine system? give examples
Define Livor mortis and explain how it helps estimate the time of death
Define rigor mortis and explain how it helps estimate the time of death
Define algor mortis and explain how it helps estimate the time of death
Define insect activity and explain how it helps estimate the time of death
levels of organization
cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
what is a TBI? define the cause and effect
traumatic brain injury
caused by: occurs when a force impacts the head, causing brain damage
effects- loss of consciousness, confusion, memory problems, headaches, nausea, and difficulty with speech. Cognition: Difficulty learning, remembering, making decisions, and reasoning. Physical Function: Problems with balance, coordination, vision, hearing, and speech. Behavior and Mood:
What is CTE? define the cause and effect
Chronic traumatic encephalopathy
cause- head injuries, including concussions and non-concussive impacts
effect- decline in cognitive function, including memory and thinking skills, as well as behavioral and personality changes, and can lead to dementia
What are the four types of tissue and their basic functions?
Epithelial (protection)
connective (support)
muscle (movement)
nervous (signal transmission).
Describe the flow of blood through the heart
Superior and inferior vena cava --> R atrium --> tricuspid valve --> R ventricle --> pulmonary valve --> pulmonary artery --> lungs --> pulmonary vein --> L atrium --> mitral valve --> L ventricle --> aortic valve --> aorta
Valve defects
Each of the four valves can be defective
Stenosis: valve will not open all the way; it is harder to force blood through it
Regurgitation: valve will not close all the way; it leaks when it should be closed
septal defects
Small holes, present at birth, in the walls between the heart chambers.
What is homeostasis and how do organisms maintain it?
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment, achieved through feedback mechanisms.
What are the normal ranges for blood pressure and heart rate?
Normal blood pressure is around 120/80 mmHg, and normal heart rate is 60-100 beats per minute.
What do high/low values of blood pressure indicate?
high- hypertension
low- hypotension
What is happening to the body when the systolic pressure is measured?
the force your blood exerts on your artery walls when your heart is contracting and pumping blood
What is happening to the body when the diastolic pressure is measured?
the pressure in your arteries when your heart is at rest between beats.
How is blood pressure heard/seen with a sphygmomanometer
heard through a stethoscope as the cuff is deflated. The first sound heard (systolic pressure) and the last sound heard (diastolic pressure) are recorded.
What does BMI measure and how do you calculate it?
BMI measures body fat based on height and weight; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared.
What are some signs of medical problems that can be seen through visual inspection?
Signs include swelling, discoloration, lesions, and abnormal growths.
What does a medical professional look for when listening to heart and lung sounds?
They assess for abnormal sounds that may indicate health issues such as murmurs, wheezes, or crackles.
Why do we need cholesterol?
Cholesterol is essential for building cell membranes and producing hormones.
Why is having too much cholesterol in the body bad?
Excess cholesterol can lead to atherosclerosis, increasing the risk of heart disease.
What is LDL's function and what levels are desired?
LDL (low-density lipoprotein) transports cholesterol to cells; low levels are desired. (below 100 mg/dL)
What is also known as bad cholesterol?
Low-density lipoproteins (LDL)
What is HDL's function and what levels are desired?
HDL (high-density lipoprotein) helps remove cholesterol from the bloodstream; high levels are desired. (60 mg/dL or higher)
What can be done to maintain healthy cholesterol levels?
Regular exercise, a balanced diet low in saturated fats, and avoiding tobacco.
What is atherosclerosis and how can it affect blood pressure?
Atherosclerosis is the buildup of plaque in arteries, which can lead to increased blood pressure.
What is the relationship between food energy, glucose, and ATP?
Food energy is converted into glucose, which is then used to produce ATP, the energy currency of cells.
What are the four biomolecules and their functions?
1. Carbohydrates: provide energy
2. Proteins: build and repair tissues
3. Lipids: store energy
4. Nucleic acids: store genetic information.
How does insulin help cells to use the glucose that you eat?
Insulin helps cells use the glucose you eat by acting like a key that unlocks cells to let glucose in.
1. You eat food → your blood glucose (sugar) levels rise.
2. The pancreas releases insulin in response.
3. Insulin binds to receptors on the surface of your cells (especially muscle and fat cells).
4. This triggers the cells to open glucose channels.
5. Glucose enters the cells, where it’s used for energy or stored for later.
How do insulin and glucagon maintain blood glucose homeostasis?
Insulin lowers blood glucose levels, while glucagon raises them, maintaining balance.
Is the blood glucose feedback loop considered positive or negative feedback?
It is considered negative feedback.
How does the body react to glucose in type 1 diabetes
In Type 1 diabetes, the body cannot produce insulin, so it can’t properly respond to glucose after eating.
1. You eat food → blood glucose rises.
2. But the pancreas doesn’t make insulin (because the immune system has destroyed the insulin-producing beta cells).
3. Without insulin, glucose can’t enter cells.
4. Glucose stays in the blood, leading to high blood sugar levels.
5. Cells are starved for energy, so the body breaks down fat and muscle instead.
6. This can lead to dangerous conditions like ketoacidosis (a buildup of acids in the blood).
How does the body react to glucose in type 2 diabetes
In Type 2 diabetes, the body makes insulin, but the cells don’t respond to it properly. This is called insulin resistance.
1. You eat food → blood glucose rises.
2. The pancreas releases insulin.
3. But cells ignore or resist insulin’s signal.
4. So, glucose can’t enter cells easily.
5. The pancreas tries to produce more insulin, but over time it can’t keep up.
6. Result: High blood sugar and low energy in cells.
What is the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes?
Type 1 Diabetes is an autoimmune condition where the body does not produce insulin; Type 2 Diabetes is characterized by insulin resistance.
How is each type of diabetes treated?
Type 1 Diabetes is treated with insulin injections
Type 2 Diabetes may be managed with lifestyle changes and medications.
What is HIPAA and what information does it protect?
HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) protects patient health information and restricts sharing without consent.
Differentiate between chronic and acute diseases.
Chronic diseases are long-lasting and often progressive, while acute diseases are severe but short-term.
What is the purpose of mitosis?
Mitosis is for cell division, producing two identical daughter cells for growth and repair.
What happens to chromosomes during mitosis?
Chromosomes are duplicated and evenly divided between the two daughter cells.
What makes cancer cells different from normal cells?
Cancer cells grow uncontrollably, do not respond to normal growth signals, and can invade other tissues.
What are the basic categories of protein functions?
1. Driving cellular reactions
2. Providing Defense
3. Building Structures
4. Transporting Materials
5. Coordinating Cellular Activities
6. Movement
Define driving cellular reactions
Driving cellular reactions- A group of proteins responsible for:
- Digestion: breaking down foods and cell debris
- Biosynthesis: building cellular components, such as DNA, RNA, and cell membranes
- Controlling cell growth and division
Define providing defense
Providing Defense- Defensive proteins, such as antibodies, combat foreign invaders to the body. These invaders include bacteria, viruses, fungi, pollen, and others.
Define building structures
Building Structures- Support proteins build structures and include:
Silk fibers (spider webs)
Collagen and elastin (animal connective tissue)
Keratin (feathers and hair)
define transporting materials
Transporting Materials –Transport proteins:
Carry essential nutrients and gases through the body.For example, the protein hemoglobin transports oxygen for use in cellular respiration.
Carry cellular waste for disposal.
define coordinating cellular activities
Coordinating Cellular Activities –Hormonal proteins help maintain homeostasis. For example, the protein insulin helps regulate blood glucose levels.
Sensory proteins are used to interpret our environment (taste, smell, sound).
Define movement
Movement –Motor and contractile proteins, such as actin and myosin, found in muscles and used during cell division, help cells move.
Where do transcription and translation take place?
Transcription occurs in the nucleus; translation occurs in the cytoplasm at ribosomes.
What are the products of transcription and translation?
Transcription produces mRNA; translation produces proteins.
What enzymes are involved in translation
rRNA
What enzymes are involved in transcription?
DNA helicase and RNA polymerase
Fill in the Blanks: All instructions for proteins are stored in our (1) , which is located
in a cell's (2). This DNA must first be copied into (3), through a
process called (4). This process takes place in the (5). The
(6) then takes the message to the (7), specifically to a ribosome. This is
where the process of (8) takes place. A tRNA matches its (9) to a
(10) on the mRNA. The tRNA then leaves its (11) to join the growing chain that
will become a (12)
1. DNA
2. nucleus
3. mRNA
4. transcription.
5. nucleus
6. mRNA
7. cytoplasm
8. translation
9. anticodon
10. codon
11. amino acid
12. protein.
How does substitution mutations form?
Occur when one nucleotide is replaced with another during DNA replication.
How does insertion mutations form?
Occur when an extra nucleotide is added to the DNA sequence during replication.
How does deletion mutations form?
Occur when one or more nucleotides are removed from the DNA sequence during replication.
difference between alleles and genes
a gene is a unit of heredity that codes for a specific trait, while an allele is a specific version or variation of that gene.
difference between genotype and phenotype
genotype is the set of alleles for a gene an organism has. Phenotype is the physical appearance of the trait; or the trait expressed.
What is a karyotype and what information can it provide?
A karyotype is a visual representation of an individual's chromosomes, used to identify chromosomal abnormalities.
What is the purpose of meiosis?
Meiosis is for producing gametes (sperm and eggs) with half the number of chromosomes for sexual reproduction.
What is the purpose of meiosis?
The purpose of meiosis is to produce gametes (sperm and eggs) for sexual reproduction, reducing the chromosome number by half.
What happens to chromosomes during meiosis?
Chromosomes undergo replication, pairing, and separation, resulting in four genetically diverse haploid cells.
What is nondisjunction?
Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division.
How does nondisjunction happen?
Nondisjunction can occur during meiosis I or II, leading to gametes with an abnormal number of chromosomes.
Is nondisjunction common?
Yes, nondisjunction is relatively common and can lead to conditions like Down syndrome.
How are chromosome mutations different from DNA mutations?
Chromosome mutations involve changes in the structure or number of chromosomes, while DNA mutations involve changes in the nucleotide sequence of DNA.
What is deletion in chromosome mutations?
Deletion is the loss of a segment of a chromosome.
What is insertion in chromosome mutations?
Insertion is the addition of extra genetic material into a chromosome.
What is inversion in chromosome mutations?
Inversion is when a segment of a chromosome is reversed end to end.
What is duplication in chromosome mutations?
Duplication is the repetition of a segment of a chromosome.
What is translocation in chromosome mutations?
Translocation is the transfer of a segment of one chromosome to a non-homologous chromosome.
What are the 6 Agents of Disease?
The six agents of disease are prions, bacteria, helminths, virus, protistis, and fungi
How are diseases transmitted?
Diseases can be transmitted through direct contact, airborne transmission, vector-borne transmission, and contaminated surfaces.
How are diseases treated?
Diseases are treated through medications, vaccinations, lifestyle changes, and sometimes surgical interventions.
Why are viruses and prions different from other agents of disease?
Viruses and prions are acellular and require a host to replicate, while other agents can survive independently.
What is a Chain of Infection?
A Chain of Infection is the process by which infectious diseases are transmitted from one host to another.
What is a reservoir in the context of infectious diseases?
A reservoir is the natural habitat of an infectious agent where it lives and multiplies.
What do you need to know about an infectious agent to break the chain of infection?
You need to know its mode of transmission, reservoir, and susceptible hosts.
Differentiate between Innate and Acquired immunity.
Innate immunity is non-specific and present at birth, while acquired immunity is specific and develops after exposure to pathogens.
What are the parts of the immune system that are considered innate?
Parts of the innate immune system include barriers like skin, phagocytes, and natural killer cells.
What are the parts of the immune system that are considered acquired?
Parts of the acquired immune system include B cells, T cells, and antibodies.
What is aseptic technique?
Aseptic technique is a set of practices used to prevent contamination by pathogens when working with microorganisms.
What is an isolation streak?
An isolation streak is a method used to separate individual bacterial colonies on an agar plate.
What are the 3 categories of bacteria morphology?
The three categories of bacteria morphology are cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), and spirilla (spiral-shaped).
What is a Gram Stain?
A Gram Stain is a laboratory technique used to differentiate bacterial species into Gram-positive or Gram-negative based on cell wall composition.
What does it mean to be Gram positive or Gram negative?
Gram-positive bacteria have a thick peptidoglycan layer and retain the crystal violet stain, while Gram-negative bacteria have a thin layer and do not retain the stain.
Why is helpful to know if a bacterium is gram positive or negative?
What are the patient ABCs?
airway, breathing, circulation
What are the different methods of drug delivery?
Oral
Rectal
Inhaled
Topical
Injection/infusion
What is the basic concept of diffusion?
Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Why are different drugs delivered to patients in different ways?
What makes osmosis different from diffusion?
Osmosis is specifically the movement of water across a semipermeable membrane, while diffusion refers to the movement of any substance.
hypertonic solution
Solute concentration is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses water
hypotonic solution
a solution that causes a cell to swell because of osmosis
isotonic soultion
water flows in and out of the cell at the same time
describe the process of blood clotting
1) Endothelial damage exposes collagen to platelets
2) Triggers platelet aggregation at injury site
3) Platelets become activated, releasing their granular stores (includes Thomboxane A2)
4) Activates more platelets and starts cascade that results in platelet shape change which helps the platelets stick together (involves Glycoprotein IIb-IIIa)
5) Endothelial injury also triggers a tissue factor pathway that results in prothrombin changing to thrombin
6) Primary role of thrombin is to convert fibrinogen to fibrin (the building block of the clot)
Is blood clotting positive or negative feedback?
positive feedback
What are the ABCs of bleeding control?
The ABCs of bleeding control are Airway, Breathing, and Circulation, focusing on maintaining these vital functions.
What is Triage?
Triage is the process of prioritizing patients based on the severity of their condition to allocate medical resources effectively.
what criteria do medical professionals use to make triage decisions?
the patient's pulse, respiratory rate, capillary refill time, presence of bleeding, and the patient's ability to follow commands