Untitled Flashcards Set

🕊 1919 – Treaty of Versailles

• What: The primary peace treaty that officially ended World War I.

• Key Terms:

  • Article 231 ("War Guilt Clause") blamed Germany solely for WWI.

  • Germany had to pay reparations (~132 billion gold marks).

  • Loss of territory (Alsace-Lorraine to France, colonies taken).

  • Military restrictions: German army limited to 100,000; no air force or submarines.

• Significance:

  • Caused deep resentment and economic hardship in Germany.

  • Fueled nationalism and helped Adolf Hitler gain support.

  • Set the stage for instability in Europe.

🌐 1920 – League of Nations

• What: An international organization founded to maintain world peace.

• Goals: Disarmament, preventing war through collective security, settling disputes diplomatically.

• Weaknesses:

  • U.S. did not join, despite President Wilson’s push.

  • Lacked enforcement power (no military).

  • Failed to act in major aggressions (Japan in Manchuria, Italy in Ethiopia, Hitler’s expansions).

• Significance: Its failure underscored the limits of idealism and diplomacy without force.

💰 1924 – Dawes Plan

• What: U.S.-initiated financial plan to help Germany pay its war reparations.

• How it worked:

  • U.S. banks loaned money to Germany.

  • Germany used it to stabilize its economy and pay reparations to Allies.

  • Allies used those payments to repay loans to the U.S.

• Significance:

  • Temporarily stabilized Germany and European economies.

  • Created economic interdependence, which collapsed during the Great Depression.

  • Set up Germany’s future economic vulnerability.

⚔ 1931 – Manchurian Crisis

• What: Japan invaded the Chinese region of Manchuria.

• Trigger: Mukden Incident – Japanese troops claimed Chinese sabotage of a railway.

• Outcome: Japan took over Manchuria, created puppet state Manchukuo.

• League’s Response: Condemned the invasion but took no military action.

• Significance:

  • Exposed the League’s weakness in dealing with aggressors.

  • Encouraged future aggression by Germany and Italy.

🧠 1933 – Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor

• Who: Leader of the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Party).

• How: Appointed legally by President Hindenburg after Nazi electoral gains.

• What He Did:

  • Quickly consolidated power: Reichstag Fire, Enabling Act gave him dictatorial control.

  • Suppressed opposition; began rearmament and anti-Semitic laws.

• Significance: Transformed Germany into a fascist state and began path to WWII.

🇺🇸 1933 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) becomes President

• Who: 32nd U.S. President; served 4 terms.

• Domestic Focus: Led New Deal to combat the Great Depression.

• Foreign Policy:

  • Initially supported neutrality.

  • Gradually shifted toward supporting Allies through measures like Lend-Lease.

• Significance: Critical figure in mobilizing U.S. for WWII and shaping the postwar world.

⚖ 1935–1937 – Neutrality Acts

• What: U.S. legislation to keep the country out of foreign conflicts.

• Key Provisions:

  • No arms sales or loans to nations at war.

  • "Cash and Carry": Nations could buy goods if they paid cash and transported them.

• Why: Reaction to WWI and isolationist sentiment in the U.S.

• Significance: Showed U.S. reluctance to intervene globally, but also allowed limited support for Allies.

🇪🇸 1936–1939 – Spanish Civil War

• What: War between Republicans (leftist democracy) and Nationalists (fascists under Francisco Franco).

• Foreign Involvement:

  • Germany and Italy supported Franco with troops and air support.

  • Soviet Union supported Republicans; Western democracies stayed neutral.

• Significance:

  • Preview of WWII: Showed Axis willingness to use force.

  • Franco's victory established a fascist regime in Spain until the 1970s.

🩸 1937 – Nanking (Nanjing) Massacre

• What: Atrocities committed by Japanese troops in China’s capital.

• Details:

  • Over 200,000 Chinese civilians and prisoners murdered.

  • Widespread rape, looting, and destruction.

• Significance:

  • Marked extreme Japanese aggression.

  • Showed brutality of the Pacific War and foreshadowed further war crimes.

📝 1938 – Munich Conference / Appeasement

• What: Britain and France allowed Hitler to annex the Sudetenland (Czech territory).

• Leaders Involved: Neville Chamberlain (UK), Édouard Daladier (France), Hitler.

• Appeasement: Policy of making concessions to avoid war.

• Result: Hitler promised no further expansion (he later broke this).

• Significance:

  • Emboldened Hitler; made future war more likely.

  • Chamberlain declared “peace for our time”—a tragic misjudgment.

🤝 1939 – Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

• What: Secret agreement between Hitler and Stalin not to attack each other.

• Secret Clause: Agreed to divide Poland and other Eastern European countries.

• Significance:

  • Gave Hitler confidence to invade Poland.

  • Shocked the world, especially because of ideological differences between Nazis and Soviets.

🚢 1939 – S.S. St. Louis Incident

• What: Ship carrying 900+ Jewish refugees from Germany was turned away from Cuba, U.S., and Canada.

• Outcome: Forced to return to Europe. Many passengers died in the Holocaust.

• Significance:

  • Demonstrated global indifference to Jewish persecution.

  • Highlighted anti-immigrant sentiment and restrictive immigration policies.

🔨 1939 – Joseph Stalin (USSR)

• Who: Totalitarian communist leader of the Soviet Union.

• Actions:

  • Purges millions of perceived enemies.

  • Signs pact with Hitler, then joins Allies after Germany’s 1941 invasion.

• Significance: Played a key role in Allied victory and shaped postwar Eastern Europe (Cold War roots).

🗣 1940 – Winston Churchill becomes British Prime Minister

• Who: Former First Lord of the Admiralty, becomes wartime leader.

• Role: Refused to negotiate with Hitler; rallied Britain with speeches during the Blitz.

• Significance:

  • Became symbol of Allied resistance.

  • Instrumental in forging alliance with the U.S. and USSR.

🇮🇹 1940 – Benito Mussolini (Italy)

• Who: Fascist dictator of Italy.

• Actions:

  • Invaded Ethiopia (1935).

  • Entered WWII on Germany’s side (1940).

• Significance:

  • Inspired Hitler.

  • Italy later invaded by Allies; Mussolini was overthrown and executed in 1945.

💵 1939–1940 – “Cash and Carry” Policy

• What: Allowed U.S. to sell arms and goods to nations at war if they paid cash and transported them.

• Why: Designed to aid Allies while maintaining official neutrality.

• Significance:

  • First step away from strict neutrality.

  • Helped Britain and France before U.S. entry into WWII.

🚢 1941 – Lend-Lease Act

• What: Law allowing U.S. to lend or lease military supplies to Allies.

• Who Benefited: Primarily Britain, USSR, and China.

• Significance:

  • Marked end of U.S. neutrality.

  • Strengthened Allied forces and prepared U.S. industry for war production.

📜 1941 – Atlantic Charter

• What: Declaration of shared goals between the U.S. and Britain (FDR and Churchill).

• Key Points:

  • No territorial expansion.

  • Self-determination for all peoples.

  • Free trade and disarmament.

  • Establishment of post-war peace.

• Significance:

  • Foundation for the United Nations.

  • Cemented U.S.-British alliance.

🕯 1941–1945 – The Holocaust

• What: Systematic, state-sponsored genocide of Jews and other groups by Nazi Germany.

• Victims:

  • ~6 million Jews.

  • Millions of Roma, disabled, Poles, LGBTQ+ people, Soviet POWs.

• Tactics: Ghettos, concentration camps, gas chambers (e.g., Auschwitz).

• Significance:

  • One of history’s worst atrocities.

  • Led to global efforts on human rights, Nuremberg Trials, and “Never Again” movement.

🇺🇸 1933–1945 – Eleanor Roosevelt

• Who: First Lady of the United States during FDR's presidency.

• Role:

  • Redefined the position of First Lady: active in politics, social reform, and civil rights.

  • Advocated for African Americans, women, and Japanese Americans.

  • Served as U.S. delegate to the United Nations after the war.

• Significance:

  • Voice of conscience on the homefront.

  • Pushed for inclusion and justice even during wartime restrictions.

📜 1939 – Conscription (Selective Training and Service Act of 1940)

• What: First peacetime draft in U.S. history.

• Details:

  • Required men aged 21–35 (later 18–45) to register for military service.

  • Expanded once U.S. entered WWII (after 1941).

• Significance:

  • Prepared U.S. for possible involvement before Pearl Harbor.

  • Ensured a large standing military during the war.

🌎 1933–1940s – Good Neighbor Policy

• What: FDR's foreign policy toward Latin America.

• Goals:

  • Improve diplomatic relations with Latin American countries.

  • Promote mutual defense and economic cooperation during WWII.

• Actions:

  • Ended U.S. military interventions (like in Haiti and Nicaragua).

  • Encouraged hemispheric unity against Axis powers.

• Significance:

  • Strengthened support for Allies in the Western Hemisphere.

  • Helped Latin American countries contribute labor and resources.

⚖ 1942 – Japanese Internment

• What: Forced relocation and incarceration of 110,000+ Japanese Americans.

• Why: Fear of espionage and sabotage after Pearl Harbor.

• Executive Order 9066 (Feb. 1942):

  • Authorized military zones and removal of Japanese Americans from West Coast.

  • Most were U.S. citizens; interned in camps in remote areas.

• Significance:

  • Massive civil liberties violation rooted in racism and wartime hysteria.

  • Many lost homes, businesses, and possessions.

🧑‍⚖ 1944 – Korematsu v. United States

• What: Landmark Supreme Court case challenging Japanese internment.

• Fred Korematsu refused relocation and was arrested.

• Ruling: Supreme Court upheld internment as a wartime necessity.

• Significance:

  • Set precedent for government overreach during emergencies.

  • Later discredited; in 1988, U.S. issued formal apology and reparations.

🍞 1942–1945 – Rationing

• What: Government-controlled limits on goods to support the war effort.

• Items Rationed: Gasoline, rubber, sugar, meat, coffee, butter, metal.

• Tools: Ration books and stamps, victory gardens.

• Significance:

  • Ensured fair distribution and supported military needs.

  • Fostered a culture of sacrifice and unity on the homefront.

🏭 1942 – War Production Board (WPB)

• What: Government agency created to oversee war production.

• Functions:

  • Converted civilian factories to wartime production (e.g., cars to tanks).

  • Allocated raw materials and prioritized contracts.

• Results:

  • Massive industrial mobilization.

  • U.S. became the “Arsenal of Democracy.”

• Significance:

  • U.S. production helped turn the tide of war for the Allies.

👩‍🔧 1942–1945 – Rosie the Riveter

• What: Iconic symbol of women working in wartime industry.

• Image: “We Can Do It!” poster by J. Howard Miller.

• Impact:

  • Millions of women entered factories, shipyards, and defense industries.

  • Challenged traditional gender roles.

• Significance:

  • Sparked long-term conversations about women’s rights and workforce participation.

🪖 1942 – Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC)

• What: First U.S. military unit allowing women to serve in non-combat roles.

• Jobs: Clerks, radio operators, nurses, mechanics, pilots (WASPs).

• Later Became: Women’s Army Corps (WAC) in 1943 with full military status.

• Significance:

  • Paved the way for permanent roles for women in the military.

  • Helped fill critical personnel gaps.

✊🏽 1942 – “Double V” Campaign

• What: Civil rights movement led by Black Americans during WWII.

• Slogan: Victory over fascism abroad and racism at home.

• Promoted By: The Pittsburgh Courier, a Black newspaper.

• Significance:

  • Highlighted hypocrisy of fighting for freedom abroad while denying it at home.

  • Precursor to the Civil Rights Movement.

⚫ 1942 – Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

• What: Civil rights organization founded in Chicago.

• Goals: Use nonviolent resistance to challenge segregation and discrimination.

• WWII-Era Activities: Sit-ins and protests against job and housing discrimination.

• Significance:

  • Pushed for racial justice during the war.

  • Became a major force in the 1960s Civil Rights Movement.

🇲🇽 1942 – Bracero Program

• What: U.S. agreement with Mexico to bring in temporary laborers during WWII.

• Why: Addressed farm labor shortages due to wartime draft and industry jobs.

• Conditions:

  • Promised fair wages and housing (often not met).

  • Lasted until 1964, but began as wartime measure.

• Significance:

  • Boosted U.S. agriculture.

  • Sparked immigration debates and labor rights discussions.

🌊 June 6, 1944 – D-Day / Normandy Invasion

• What: Allied amphibious invasion of Nazi-occupied France.

• Code Name: Operation Overlord.

• Forces: U.S., British, and Canadian troops stormed 5 beachheads in Normandy.

• Result:

  • Successful beachhead established; Paris liberated in August 1944.

• Significance:

  • Turning point in Western Europe.

  • Opened a second front against Germany, accelerating the end of the war.

❄ Dec 1944 – Jan 1945 – Battle of the Bulge

• What: Germany’s last major offensive in Western Europe.

• Where: Ardennes Forest, Belgium and Luxembourg.

• Details:

  • Surprise attack during winter.

  • U.S. forces, especially the 101st Airborne in Bastogne, held out until reinforcements arrived.

• Significance:

  • Costly for Germany: lost irreplaceable men and equipment.

  • Final push failed, allowing Allied advance into Germany.

🇵🇱 1939 – Invasion of Poland

• What: Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939.

• Trigger: Hitler claimed Polish mistreatment of Germans.

• Tactics: Used Blitzkrieg (“lightning war”)—rapid attacks with planes, tanks, and infantry.

• Result: Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later.

• Significance: Official start of WWII in Europe.

⚡ 1939–1940 – Blitzkrieg

• What: German military tactic of fast, overwhelming attack.

• Tools: Coordinated use of Luftwaffe (air force), Panzer divisions (tanks), and infantry.

• Use: Conquered Poland, Denmark, Norway, Belgium, and France rapidly.

• Significance: Revolutionized warfare; early German dominance.

🇬🇧 1940 – Battle of Britain

• What: Air war between the British Royal Air Force (RAF) and German Luftwaffe.

• Goal: Hitler aimed to destroy Britain’s air force before invading.

• Details: Bombing campaigns (including civilian targets, the Blitz).

• Outcome: RAF’s resilience and use of radar helped Britain win.

• Significance: First major defeat of Nazi Germany; preserved British resistance.

🇺🇸 December 7, 1941 – Pearl Harbor Attack

• What: Surprise Japanese attack on U.S. naval base in Hawaii.

• Damage: Over 2,400 killed; battleships sunk or damaged.

• Result: U.S. declared war on Japan; Germany and Italy declared war on U.S.

• Significance: U.S. enters WWII; war becomes global.

✈ April 1942 – Doolittle’s Raid

• What: U.S. bombing raid on Tokyo and other Japanese cities.

• Led by: Lt. Col. James Doolittle.

• Details: First airstrike on Japan’s homeland; morale booster after Pearl Harbor.

• Significance: Showed Japan was vulnerable; psychological victory for Americans.

🇵🇭 April 1942 – Bataan Death March

• What: 65-mile forced march of American and Filipino POWs by Japanese forces in the Philippines.

• Conditions: Brutal; over 10,000 died from starvation, dehydration, abuse.

• Significance: Sparked outrage in U.S.; exemplified Japanese cruelty in the Pacific.

❄ August 1942 – February 1943 – Battle of Stalingrad

• What: Brutal battle between Germany and Soviet Union for control of Stalingrad.

• Conditions: Urban combat, starvation, bitter cold.

• Outcome: Soviet victory after encircling German 6th Army.

• Significance: Turning point on the Eastern Front; German retreat began.

🏝 1943–1945 – “Island Hopping” Campaign

• What: U.S. strategy to capture key Pacific islands, bypassing others.

• Goal: Move closer to Japan for bombing and invasion.

• Key Battles: Guadalcanal, Iwo Jima, Okinawa.

• Significance: Gradual Allied advance across Pacific; high casualties.

⛴ June 1942 – Battle of Midway

• What: Naval battle where U.S. ambushed and destroyed 4 Japanese aircraft carriers.

• Tactics: Codebreaking allowed U.S. to anticipate Japanese attack.

• Significance:

  • Turning point in the Pacific.

  • Shifted naval superiority to the U.S.

🌴 August 1942 – February 1943 – Battle of Guadalcanal

• What: First major U.S. offensive in the Pacific.

• Conditions: Jungle warfare, naval clashes, disease.

• Outcome: U.S. victory halted Japanese expansion.

• Significance: First land victory; launched Allied offensive momentum.

🌍 1942–1943 – Battle of North Africa

• What: Campaign to drive Axis powers (Germany/Italy) out of Africa.

• Key Leader: Gen. George S. Patton helped lead U.S. forces.

• Operation Torch: U.S. and British forces invaded North Africa (Morocco/Algeria).

• Significance: Cleared way to invade Italy; first major U.S. ground engagement.

🇮🇹 1943–1945 – Italian Campaign

• What: Allied invasion of Italy from the south (starting with Sicily).

• Key Leaders:

  • Gen. Patton (U.S.), Gen. Montgomery (UK), later Gen. Mark Clark.

• Result: Mussolini overthrown; fierce German resistance in mountainous terrain.

• Significance: Diverted German forces; slowed but did not decisively defeat them.

🪖 1944 – Dwight D. Eisenhower

• Who: Supreme Allied Commander in Europe.

• Led: Operation Overlord (D-Day), coordinated Allied strategy.

• Later: Became U.S. President (1953–1961).

• Significance: Mastermind behind liberation of Western Europe.

💥 June 6, 1944 – D-Day / Normandy Invasion

• What: Largest amphibious invasion in history.

• Beaches: Utah, Omaha, Gold, Juno, Sword.

• Result: Successful beachhead led to liberation of Paris.

• Significance: Turning point on the Western Front.

❄ Dec 1944 – Jan 1945 – Battle of the Bulge

• What: Surprise German counterattack in Belgium.

• Details:

  • Attempt to split Allied forces.

  • U.S. troops held firm (notably in Bastogne).

• Significance:

  • Largest U.S. battle of the war.

  • Final major Nazi offensive in the west.

🏴‍☠ 1944–1945 – Kamikazes

• What: Japanese suicide pilots targeting Allied ships.

• Started: After major defeats like Leyte Gulf.

• Significance:

  • Showed Japan’s desperation.

  • Caused heavy U.S. naval casualties, especially at Okinawa.

🇯🇵 Feb–March 1945 – Battle of Iwo Jima

• What: Fierce battle to capture volcanic island close to Japan.

• Icon: U.S. flag raised on Mt. Suribachi (famous photo).

• Significance:

  • High U.S. casualties.

  • Strategic base for air raids on Japan.

🌊 April–June 1945 – Battle of Okinawa

• What: Bloodiest battle in the Pacific; final island before mainland Japan.

• Casualties: 50,000+ Allied; over 100,000 Japanese killed.

• Significance:

  • Showed how deadly a mainland invasion would be.

  • Influenced decision to use atomic bombs.

🔓 1944–1945 – Liberation of the Death Camps

• Who: Allied forces (U.S., USSR, Britain).

• What: Discovered and liberated concentration/extermination camps (e.g., Auschwitz, Dachau).

• Reactions: Shock, horror, documentation of atrocities.

• Significance:

  • Revealed full horror of the Holocaust.

  • Led to Nuremberg Trials and the phrase “Never Again.”

🧑‍💼 1945 – Yalta Conference

• Who: FDR, Churchill, Stalin.

• Goals:

  • Post-war Europe: divide Germany into zones.

  • Soviet Union agreed to fight Japan after Germany's defeat.

  • Discussion of forming the United Nations.

• Significance:

  • Set foundation for post-war world.

  • Tensions foreshadowed the Cold War.

🇺🇸 April 1945 – Harry S. Truman becomes President

• Why: FDR died shortly after beginning 4th term.

• Role:

  • Authorized atomic bomb.

  • Oversaw final months of WWII and postwar transition.

• Significance:

  • Key figure in end of war and early Cold War diplomacy.

🎉 May 8, 1945 – V-E Day (Victory in Europe Day)

• What: Germany surrendered unconditionally to Allied forces.

• Result: Celebrations across the Allied world.

• Significance:

  • End of WWII in Europe.

  • Pacific War continued.

☢ 1942–1945 – Manhattan Project

• What: Top-secret U.S. project to develop nuclear weapons.

• Key Figures: J. Robert Oppenheimer, Leslie Groves.

• Testing: First atomic bomb tested in New Mexico (Trinity Test – July 16, 1945).

• Significance: Gave U.S. unmatched destructive power; changed warfare forever.

💣 August 6 & 9, 1945 – Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

• What: U.S. dropped atomic bombs on Japanese cities.

  • Hiroshima (Aug. 6) – 70,000+ killed instantly.

  • Nagasaki (Aug. 9) – 40,000+ killed.

• Why: Force Japan’s surrender, avoid costly invasion.

• Significance: First and only use of nuclear weapons in war.

✌ August 15, 1945 – V-J Day (Victory over Japan Day)

• What: Japan surrendered after atomic bombings and Soviet invasion of Manchuria.

• Official Surrender: Sept. 2 aboard USS Missouri.

• Significance:

  • End of WWII.

  • U.S. emerged as global superpower.

📜 July–Aug 1945 – Potsdam Conference

• Who: Truman, Stalin, Churchill/Attlee.

• Purpose: Finalize post-war plans.

• Decisions:

  • Demand Japan’s unconditional surrender.

  • Set occupation policies for Germany.

  • Increase U.S.-Soviet tensions (beginning of Cold War atmosphere).

• Significance:

  • Marked the shift from WWII alliance to Cold War rivalry.