Social Development and Global Resource Issues Review

Theme 6: Development and Resource Issues

Enterprise Zones (2012): In $2012$ , $24$ Enterprise Zones were established. Businesses within these zones receive planning and financial support packages.
Liverpool Redevelopment Case Study: * Projects included new residential areas, offices, visitor attractions, shops, and services. * Stanley Dock: This area was redeveloped into the luxury Titanic Hotel. * Benefits: These developments provide jobs and improve the environment. * Positive Multiplier Effect: Redevelopment initiates a cycle: people in work have more spending power, creating work for local suppliers and services, which leads to further job creation. Environmental improvements attract new companies, and increased money for the local authority (via rates) allows for spending on roads, schools, and social services. * Criticisms: Arguments exist that many created jobs are low-paid, part-time positions in tourism and retail. These jobs may not reflect the skills of the existing population, such as former dockworkers.
Redevelopment in Wales: * Similar schemes were implemented in Cardiff Bay and the Maritime Quarter in Swansea. * Cardiff Bay Statistics: The redevelopment cost over $\pounds 220$ million, created almost $20,000$ new jobs, and resulted in nearly $5000$ new flats and houses.
General Assessment: While it is early for firm conclusions, indications suggest Enterprise Zones in England and similar Welsh schemes have successfully improved the economy, environment, and society in deprived regions.
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Measuring Social Development

Social Development Definition: A measure of how well a society is changing for the better or how living standards are improving.
Economic vs. Social Indicators: Economic indicators often fail to reflect the actual standard of living. Social development indicators provide a more nuanced view.
Key Social Indicators: * Life Expectancy: The average age a person is expected to live to in a population. * Number of homeless people. * Infant Mortality Rate: The number of babies per $1000$ live births who die before reaching age one. * Literacy Rate: The percentage of people in a population who can read or write. * Number of people per doctor.
Primary Areas of Measurement: Gender equality and citizen health.

Gender Equality and the Gender Inequality Index (GII)

Gender Indicators: Progress toward equal rights is measured by: * Male and female literacy rates. * Fertility Rate: The average number of births to a woman in her lifetime. * Male and female life expectancy. * Male and female food consumption. * Employment types.
Gender Inequality Index (GII): Measures disparity in three key aspects: reproductive health, empowerment, and economic status.
GII Formulation (Dimensions and Indicators): * Health: Measured by Maternal Mortality Ratio and Adolescent Birth Rate. This forms the Female Reproductive Health Index. * Empowerment: Measured by Female and Male population with at least secondary education and Female and Male shares of parliamentary seats. This forms the Female and Male Empowerment Indexes. * Labour Market: Measured by Female and Male labour force participation rates. This forms the Female and Male Labour Market Indexes.

Health Indicators and the Social Development Continuum

Measuring Healthcare Progress: Indicators include average life expectancy, infant mortality rate, percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) spent on healthcare, length of hospital waiting lists/times, and mortality rates of specific conditions.
Interdependence: Indicators are often linked; for example, healthcare spending (\% of GDP) influences hospital waiting lists, which eventually impacts life expectancy.
Continuum of Social Development: Thinking of development as a gradual progression rather than a binary "healthy" or "unhealthy" label. * 2018 Life Expectancy Examples: Japan has the longest ( $84$ years), while the Central African Republic has the shortest ( $53$ years). There are $181$ other countries distributed between these extremes.
Dynamic Nature: The continuum is not static. Medical developments, investments, and vaccination programmes can cut death rates quickly in poorer countries, reducing the Development Gap (the disparity between the world's richest and poorest countries).

Human Development Index (HDI)

Definition: A compound measure taking wealth, education, and life expectancy into account.
Calculated from four indicators: 1. Average length of schooling in years. 2. Literacy rates. 3. Gross National Income (GNI) per capita (average income per person). 4. Life expectancy.
Reliability: By combining social and economic factors, the HDI provides a more reliable measurement of overall development.

Uneven Social Development: Birth and Death Rates

Factors Influencing High Birth Rates: * Economic (E): Children provide labour on farms and security for old age. * Social (S): Large families correlate with virility; high infant mortality rates encourage larger families; women may lack education or marry early, extending child-bearing years.
Factors Influencing Lower Birth Rates: * Social (S): People marry later; women are educated and pursue careers. * Economic (E): High cost of living makes raising children expensive; higher spending on material goods (holidays, cars). * Political (P): Birth control is readily available; education policies.
Factors Influencing Higher Death Rates: * Social (S): Difficult-to-control diseases (e.g., Covid-19); ageing societies in High Income Countries (HICs).
Factors Influencing Lower Death Rates: * Political (P): Better healthcare, vaccination programmes, health/hygiene education, and reliable water supplies. * Social (S): Less physically demanding jobs.

Population Pyramids

Definition: Graphs showing age and gender distribution in five-year age groups (males vs. females).
2019 Examples: * Malawi (Sub-Saharan Africa): Birth rate of $34$ and death rate of $6.6$ . The pyramid has a wide base, indicating a high birth rate. * India (South Asia): Birth rate of $17.8$ and death rate of $7.2$ . The pyramid reflects a different stage of development compared to Malawi.

Child Labour: Causes and Consequences

Definition: Work that deprives children of their childhood, potential, and dignity.
Global Statistics: Estimated $152$ million child workers worldwide. Sub-Saharan Africa has the highest proportion.
Causes: Poverty (supporting family income), Migration, lack of access/unaffordable education, unemployed parents, and high numbers of orphans due to AIDS.
Consequences: * Deprivation of the right to education. * $22,000$ children die in work-related accidents annually. * Trapping in slavery, trafficking, and prostitution. * Damaging effects on health, malnutrition, and growth deficiency.

International Action Against Child Labour

International Labour Organisation (ILO): Collects data to set benchmarks, monitors progress, and makes governmental recommendations (improving school access, creating trade unions, and strengthening social security).
United Nations (UN): Passed international conventions including Convention 138 (Minimum Age for Employment) and Convention 182 (Worst Forms of Child Labour).
Other Initiatives: International World Day Against Child Labour; charities like Child Hope and SOS Children’s Villages.

Challenges in Primary Education: India Case Study

UNESCO Data: $16$ million girls will never go to school; $67\%$ of the $750$ million adults with poor literacy are women.
India Statistics (2011 Census): $10.1$ million working children. $62\%$ of children not attending school are girls.
Barriers for Girls: * Poor quality school facilities and infrastructure. * Distance/cost. * Caste System: Social class determined by birth, often leading to oppressive attitudes toward women. * Cultural factors: Arranged marriages at a young age; fear of sexual harassment bringing "dishonour."
Strategies for Improvement: * Charities educating parents on the value of girls' education. * Bal Sabhas (Girls’ Councils): Established in primary schools to provide girls a voice. * Child and Adolescent Labour Act (1986): Criminalizes child employment in $64$ hazardous industries. * Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (2009): Mandates free education up to age $14$ .

International Refugees and Migration

Economic Migrants: Move voluntarily for higher wages (Pull Factors).
Refugees/Asylum Seekers: Forced to move due to conflict, persecution, or natural disasters (Push Factors).
Current Crisis: Movement since $2000$ from Africa, the Middle East (Syria, Iraq, Eritrea, Somalia), and South Asia (Afghanistan) is the largest since WWII.
Case Study: Lebanon: * Population of $4.5$ million; hosting $1.5$ million Syrian refugees in $2018$ . * Impacts: $30\%$ of population are refugees; highest per capita concentration globally; pressure on infrastructure, water/sanitation (disease spread), and security.
Schengen Agreement (1995): Created a zone of passport-free movement in Europe. Non-Schengen zones (like the UK) face issues with illegal migration (e.g., hiding on lorries in Calais).
European Responses: * Temporary border controls in $7$ countries (e.g., Germany, Sweden, Poland). * Operation Sophia: EU naval operation to prevent smuggling in the Mediterranean. * National Policies: Germany and Sweden focused on welcoming/integration; UK agreed to accept $20,000$ Syrian refugees by $2020$ (over $17,000$ settled by $2019$ ).

Healthcare Issues in Sub-Saharan Africa

Infant Mortality: Highest in the world ( $78$ deaths per $1000$ live births in $2018$ ; $1$ in $13$ children die before age five).
Malaria: * Caused by parasites via mosquito bites. $405,000$ deaths in $2019$ , mostly in Sub-Saharan Africa. * Malawi Case Study: Peak during rainy season (Jan-April). Rural mud/thatch houses offer no protection. Government use of Insecticide-Treated Nets (ITNs) costing $~\pounds 3$ and Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS).
HIV/AIDS: * $38$ million people globally in $2019$ ( $1.8$ million children). * Malawi Case Study: $1$ million infected. High mortality reduces tax revenue and development. Government measures: testing in clinics, mother-to-child transmission prevention, free condoms, and Anti-Retroviral Treatment (ART). * Outcome: Malawi’s life expectancy rose from $49$ ( $2005$ ) to $63$ ( $2018$ ).

Development Approaches and Measuring Progress

Top-down Approach: Large-scale, high-cost, government-led (e.g., HIV management in Malawi). Often ignores local input and may lead to debt.
Bottom-up Approach: Small-scale, community-led, sustainable (e.g., WaterAid in Malawi, providing water pumps and training local mechanics).
Millennium Development Goals (MDG) (2000-2015): Included eradicating hunger (MDG 1), universal education (MDG 2), and reducing child/maternal mortality (MDG 4 & 5).
Sustainable Development Goals (SDG): $17$ goals established in $2016$ to end poverty and protect the planet.
HDI Comparative Data (2019): * Botswana: Medium HDI ( $0.728$ ). * Angola: Low HDI ( $0.574$ ). * Niger (2012): Very Low HDI ( $0.377$ ).

Theme 8: Consumerism and Environmental Impact

Definition: The idea that it is beneficial for people to buy an increasing amount of goods/services.
Global Phenomenon: In $2019$ , there were $13$ billion mobile phones for a global population of $7.6$ billion.
Food Miles: The distance food travels from source to consumer. Globalisation allows year-round access to seasonal fruits (e.g., lamb from New Zealand, beans from Kenya).
Ecological Footprint: Measures the land area needed to sustain a lifestyle. Factors include: * Energy used in formation. * Land area for production. * Carbon produced during production and transport. * Impact on the source ecosystem. * Waste created.