Aviation Fundamentals and Flight Maneuvers Review

Rectangular Course and Wind Corrections

• Scenario Setup: A flight maneuvering course where the wind is coming from the North (blowing towards the South).
• Turn Dynamics & Wind Correction Angles (WCA):
  • To maintain a specific ground track, the pilot must adjust the turn degree based on wind influence.
  • If the nose is pushed by the wind into the desired track, the turn should be less than 90 degrees.
  • If the wind fights the turn (pushing the aircraft away from the track), the pilot must turn more than 90 degrees to counteract the force.
• Specific Corners:
  • Corner One: Wind is from the North. As you turn left, the wind pushes the nose. You turn less than 90 degrees because the wind drift helps complete the turn onto the next leg.
  • Corner Two: Similar to corner one, the wind pushes the nose during the turn, requiring less than 90 degrees of turn.
  • Corner Three: Moving into a tailwind leg. The wind pushes the tail, assisting the turn. Requires less than 90 degrees.
  • Corner Four: Turning into the wind (crosswind to headwind). The wind fights the turn and pushes against the side of the aircraft. The pilot must turn more than 90 degrees to counteract this force and prevent being blown off-course.

Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI) and Glide Paths

• Regulatory Requirements in Class D Airspace: Pilots approaching to land on a runway served by a VASI must maintain an altitude at or above the glide path.
• The 3-Degree Glide Path Commonality: While most taxi/VASI systems are set to a $3^{\circ}$ glide path, this is not a universal rule.
• Obstacle Clearance: The reason for the "at or above" rule is that some airports have obstacles (trees, towers, etc.) near the approach end. A standard $3^{\circ}$ descent might lead an aircraft into an obstacle. Pilots may need to perform a steeper descent (greater than $3^{\circ}$) while remaining on or above the designated path.

Soft Field Landing Procedures

• Approach Angle: Contrary to common misconceptions, a soft field landing uses a normal approach angle. It is not a shallow approach.
• Technique:
  • Landing is similar to a normal landing until the flare.
  • Upon reaching the runway, the goal is to keep the nose wheel off the ground as long as possible to prevent it from sinking into soft terrain.
  • Pilots should use ground effect and keep a small amount of power (instead of going to idle) to soften the touchdown.
  • Apply approximately $75\%$ back pressure on the yoke to hold the nose up as the aircraft slows through gravity.
• Checkride Standards: Failing to land on the main gear first or allowing the nose wheel to drop prematurely can result in a failure on a checkride.

Sectional Chart Symbols and Wildlife Areas

• Blue Dots: On a sectional map, areas identified with blue dots (such as Arrowwood Lake) represent Wildlife Species Areas, National Reserves, or National Parks.
• Altitude Recommendations: It is recommended (though not strictly mandatory by regulation) to maintain an altitude of at least $2,000\,\text{feet}$ AGL (Above Ground Level) when flying over these areas.

Side Loading and Crosswind Alignments

• Definition of Side Loading: This occurs when an aircraft lands while not perfectly aligned with the runway's longitudinal axis. The landing gear experiences a sideways force (load factor) as the plane drifts.
• Causes: Uncorrected crosswinds push the vertical stabilizer, causing the plane to "crab" or move sideways relative to the runway.
• Correction: Align the longitudinal axis of the aircraft parallel to the runway center line using rudder inputs (e.g., right rudder to counteract a leftward push) before touchdown.

FAA Advisory Circulars (ACs)

• Availability: FAA Advisory Circulars can be obtained by ordering them from the Government Printing Office.

Decoding Pilot Reports (PIREPs)

• Report Types:
  • UA: Routine PIREP.
  • UUA: Urgent PIREP (contains hazardous data like severe turbulence or icing).
• Decoding a Sample PIREP: KOKC /OV KOKC-KTUL /TM 1800 /FL 120 /TP BE90 /SK BKN 018-055 /OVC 072-089 /CLR ABV /TA M7 /WV 08021 /TB LGT 055-072 /IC LGT-MOD RIME 072-089
  • OV (Location): Over the route from Oklahoma City (KOKC) to Tulsa (KTUL).
  • TM (Time): $1800$ Zulu. (Local conversion: $1800 - 8\text{ hours} = 1000$ or 10:00 AM).
  • FL (Flight Level): $12,000\,\text{feet}$.
  • TP (Type): Beechcraft King Air 90 (BE90).
  • SK (Sky Cover): Broken ($BKN$) from $1,800\,\text{ft}$ to $5,500\,\text{ft}$. Overcast ($OVC$) from $7,200\,\text{ft}$ to $8,900\,\text{ft}$. Clear above ($ABV$).
  • TA (Temperature): Minus $7^{\circ}\text{C}$ ($M7$).
  • WV (Wind): From $080^{\circ}$ at $21\,\text{knots}$.
  • TB (Turbulence): Light ($LGT$) from $5,500\,\text{ft}$ to $7,200\,\text{ft}$.
  • IC (Icing): Light to Moderate ($LGT-MOD$) Rime ice from $7,200\,\text{ft}$ to $8,900\,\text{ft}$.

Stall Speed and Maneuvering Speed ($V_A$)

• Factors Increasing Stall Speed: Stall speed is increased by extra weight, increased load factors (from turns or maneuvers), and turbulence.
• Maneuvering Speed ($V_A$):
  • Definition: The speed at which the aircraft will stall before it breaks structurally if full, abrupt control deflection is applied.
  • Turbulence and $V_A$: Sudden updrafts or downdrafts in turbulence act like full control deflections. Pilots must fly below $V_A$ in rough air to protect the airframe.
  • Weight Relationship: $V_A$ increases as weight increases. A heavier plane has a higher maneuvering speed (e.g., ranging from $90$ to $105\,\text{knots}$ depending on weight).

Aircraft Weight and Balance

• Empty Weight Definition: Includes the airframe, the engine, all fixed equipment, unusable fuel, and undrainable oil.
• Unusable Fuel: Fuel that cannot be safely used by the engine (e.g., if a tank holds $26$ gallons total, only $24.5$ might be usable; the remaining $1.5$ is part of the empty weight).

Pressure and Density Altitude

• Pressure Altitude: The altitude indicated when the altimeter setting is adjusted to the standard datum plane of $29.92\,\text{Hg}$.
• Density Altitude: Pressure altitude corrected for non-standard temperature.
• Standard Day Parameters: $15^{\circ}\text{C}$ ($59^{\circ}\text{F}$) and $29.92\,\text{Hg}$ at sea level.
• Equality: Pressure altitude and density altitude are only equal when the temperature is standard.
• Stall Speed Constant: The indicated airspeed (IAS) at which an airplane stalls remains the same regardless of altitude.

Ground Effect

• Mechanism: A reduction in induced drag caused by the ground interfering with the airflow patterns (wingtip vortices) around the wing.
• Proximity: This phenomenon is most effective when the aircraft is within one-half of its wingspan distance from the ground.
• Dangers in Ground Effect:
  • Landing: May cause "floating," where the aircraft refuses to settle on the runway, potentially leading to an overshoot.
  • Takeoff: The aircraft may become airborne at a speed lower than the normal climb speed. If the pilot tries to climb out of ground effect before reaching proper airspeed, the sudden increase in induced drag can cause the plane to settle back onto the runway or stall.

Thermals and Gliders

• Formation: Thermals are created by the uneven heating of the Earth's surface. Warm air rises, creating updrafts.
• Application: Gliders (sailplanes) utilize these rising thermals to maintain flight without an engine.

Land and Hold Short Operations (LAHSO)

• Definition: An air traffic control procedure where an aircraft is cleared to land but must hold short of an intersecting runway or a specific point on the runway to allow another aircraft to operate.
• Restriction: Student pilots are not permitted to participate in or accept LAHSO clearances because of the high risk and precision required.

Pilot-Controlled Lighting (PCL)

• Frequency: Lights are typically operated on the CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency).
• Procedure: The pilot clicks the microphone button within a 5-second window:
  • 7 clicks: High intensity.
  • 5 clicks: Medium intensity.
  • 3 clicks: Low intensity.

Taxi Wind Corrections

• Quartering Headwind: Place the aileron up on the side from which the wind is blowing. This "dives into the wind."
• Quartering Tailwind: Place the aileron down on the side from which the wind is blowing and push the elevator forward. This "taxis away from the wind."

Classroom Calculation: Weather Minimums

• Scenario: Flying in Class D airspace with a pattern altitude of $1,100\,\text{ft}$.
• Rule: Minimum cloud clearance in Class D is $500\,\text{ft}$ below, $1,000\,\text{ft}$ above, and $2,000\,\text{ft}$ horizontal.
• Calculation: To fly a pattern at $1,100\,\text{ft}$ and remain $500\,\text{ft}$ below clouds, the minimum ceiling must be at least $1,600\,\text{ft}$.