Day 2 Reading: Congressional Elections and Political Parties

UNIT 1: Current Functioning of the United States Government

Authored by Larry Pratt; Edited by Rebecca Graham and Lucy Pollard

Section 1: Democracy in the U.S.

• The term "democracy" is commonly used to describe the political system in the United States, but it is crucial to acknowledge that the U.S. is a democratic republic.

• A democratic republic is characterized by the fact that the people elect representatives to exercise governmental powers.

Importance of Representation

• The average American citizen typically lacks the time or inclination to deeply engage with every public policy issue requiring action from the government.

• Imagine the complexity of each citizen determining their preferences on every single issue that comes before Congress.

Elements of Direct Democracy

• Occasionally, citizens participate in direct democracy-like mechanisms:

  • Initiatives: Citizens can propose legislation for direct vote by collecting signatures.

  • Example: In August 2022, Kansas residents voted on a provision restricting abortion rights but opted to maintain access.

  • Referendums: Sometimes state legislatures ask voters directly to vote on laws or constitutional amendments.

  • Note: There are no constitutional provisions allowing such mechanisms at the national level; all legislative actions must be conducted by elected representatives in Congress.

• The concept of representation is vital in ensuring that government actions align with the citizenry's will, especially in the House of Representatives.

Section 2: Congressional Elections

Constitutional Framework

• The process governing congressional elections derives from Article I, Section 4 of the U.S. Constitution:

• Each state legislature determines how it selects its representatives, with nearly all states adopting similar general processes.

Voting Methods

• Representatives are elected using a plurality vote, whereby the candidate with the most votes in a given district is declared the winner.

• For Senate elections, the candidate with the most votes statewide becomes one of the two senators.

Political Parties

• Political parties are integral to the electoral process, consisting of like-minded individuals aiming to elevate their members into positions of power.

  • Their roles include:

  • Identifying and recruiting candidates.

  • Nominating individuals to represent the party in elections.

  • Supporting candidate campaigns through funding and organizational efforts.

• Most political scientists agree that the American political landscape is primarily dominated by two major parties due to the plurality voting system.

Candidate Nomination Process

• To be nominated, aspiring congressional members must ensure their name is on the ballot through signature collection from registered voters, varying by state in requirements:

  • Major parties, such as the Republican, Democratic, and Libertarian Parties, have established organization structures to facilitate this process, making it easier for their candidates than for independents or minor parties.

• Candidate nomination typically occurs through:

  • Party Conventions: Where local delegates vote on candidates.

  • Primaries: Internal party elections to determine nominees.

  • Closed Primaries: Only registered party members can vote (e.g., Maryland).

  • Open Primaries: Any registered voter may participate, choosing which party’s primary to vote in (e.g., Virginia).

Campaigning

• Candidates need to campaign intensively once nominated. Key components include:

  • Conducting polls to tailor issue positions effectively.

  • Canvassing: Door-to-door or phone outreach for support.

  • Public appearances at events and delivering stump speeches: Repeated speeches outlining why candidates are suitable for representation.

  • Political Advertising: Necessary for broad message dissemination, utilizing television, radio, and social media.

Campaign Financing

• Fundraising is critical for campaign success; regulated by the Federal Elections Commission (FEC):

  • Candidates must register with the FEC and report fundraising activities.

  • Limits are imposed on individual donations to mitigate corruption concerns.

• Interest Groups play a significant role by forming Political Action Committees (PACs), pooling funds from members to support candidates financially.

Get-Out-the-Vote (GOTV) Activities

• Near Election Day, candidates and their teams engage in GOTV efforts to motivate likely supporters to vote. - Major parties provide essential resources for outreach, conducting canvassing, phone calls, and mobilizing volunteers.

Section 3: Voter Expansion or Suppression

• Political parties aim to create favorable conditions for their candidates, with strategic efforts to manipulate voter turnout through voter expansion or suppression.

Voter Expansion Strategies

• Initiatives to make voting easier include:

  • Souls to the Polls: Arranging transport for voters after church services.

  • Election Day Registration and Voting by Mail: Enhancing accessibility.

  • Reforms during the 2020 elections to combat the pandemic’s effects on participation.

  • Innovations included curbside voting, fewer restrictions on absentee balloting, and increased early voting availability.

Voter Suppression Tactics

• Conversely, laws aimed at voter suppression often make it more difficult for specific demographics to vote:

  • Voter ID Laws: Intended to prevent fraud but disproportionately affect low-income individuals unable to secure necessary IDs.

  • Laws restricting early voting and insufficient polling resources lead to longer lines, particularly in areas with significant opposition party populations.

• Example: In the 2018 Georgia gubernatorial election, problematic purging of voters and strict ID matching requirements led to disenfranchisement claims.

Gerrymandering

• Gerrymandering refers to the intentional drawing of district lines that favor one party over another:

  • Packing: Concentrating voters of the opposition party into a single district to ensure easier wins for that district.

  • Cracking: Dispersing opposition voters across multiple districts to dilute their voting power.

• Oddly shaped districts often reflect these manipulative designs, and sophisticated modern mapping technologies enable precise partisan advantages.

• Example: In the 2022 elections, Maryland had 35% of voters supporting Republicans, but only 12.5% of the House delegation were Republicans due to gerrymandered districting.

Consequences

• The skewing of primary elections has resulted in more extreme and polarized candidates, as those winning primaries no longer need to moderate their positions due to predictable general election outcomes.

• Efforts to counteract gerrymandering include establishing independent districting commissions and court interventions against the most blatant forms of bias.

• Note: Every ten years construction of new districts follows the U.S. Census, allowing current lawmakers to solidify their power further.

References

• Excerpt from the U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 4:

• Funding and oversight of campaigns are critical due to the outsized influence of wealthy donors on political representation.

• Representation in the Senate is uniquely structured, where senators from less populous states wield more influence per constituent compared to senators from populous areas, leading to systemic imbalances in representation at the national level.