phyc 9/24Comprehensive Study Notes: Operant Conditioning, Observational Learning, and Related Concepts

Core Concepts: Operant Conditioning

• operant conditioning = consequence-based learning; behavior is influenced by consequences (pleasant or unpleasant)

• four quadrants (types of consequences):

  • Positive Reinforcement: add something to increase the likelihood of a behavior

  • Examples: giving a dog a treat when they sit; giving love after correct behavior

  • Negative Reinforcement: remove something unpleasant to increase the likelihood of a behavior

  • Examples: leash pressure removed once dog assumes desired position; relief from pressure increases the desired behavior

  • Positive Punishment: add something unpleasant to decrease a behavior

  • Examples: adding a bark collar to reduce barking

  • Negative Punishment: take away something desirable to decrease a behavior

  • Examples: turning your back on a dog when they jump; taking away going out with friends in human scenarios

• timing matters: the shorter the time between behavior and consequence, the faster the learning

  • Example: grounding someone months after the behavior is unlikely to be effective; immediate consequence is stronger

• most effective quadrant: Positive Reinforcement (strongest learning and positive relationship effects)

  • Punishment drawbacks: can cause fear, mistrust, aggression, antisocial behavior; punishments may harm relationships

  • Positive reinforcement tends to improve trust and confidence

• shaping: reinforcing successive approximations toward a final desired behavior

  • Dog/dolphin examples: reward any closish behavior toward goal; gradually require closer approximations

  • Cognitive map example: shaping can be used with humans (e.g., potty training, sports progress)

  • Connection to classical conditioning: often uses a cue (e.g., clicker) paired with a reward (treat) to shape behavior

• primary vs secondary reinforcers

  • Primary reinforcers: innately pleasant (water, food, sleep, warmth, comfort)

  • Secondary reinforcers: acquire value through association (money, praise, sticker charts, rewards cards)

  • Note: praise can function as a secondary reinforcer depending on context and individual preferences

• reinforcement schedules (how often rewards occur for a behavior)

  • Continuous reinforcement (CRF): reward after every instance of the behavior

  • Partial reinforcement: reward only some of the time

  • Fixed Interval (FI): reward after a predictable time interval

    • Example: reward every 5 minutes for staying seated on the toilet

    • Notation: ext{FI: reward after fixed time } T_f

  • Fixed Ratio (FR): reward after a fixed number of responses

    • Example: reward after every 5 correct responses

    • Notation: ext{FR: reward after } N_f ext{ responses}

  • Intermittent Reinforcement (random/variable schedules): rewards occur unpredictably

    • Most powerful type; casinos exemplify this; keeps behavior going because payoff is uncertain

  • Intermittent reinforcement is often considered the most powerful because the uncertainty sustains the behavior

• latent learning and cognitive maps

  • Latent learning: learning occurs without obvious reinforcement or demonstration; knowledge is not shown until a reason to demonstrate arises

  • Example: a child sees cookies being made and later can replicate steps when asked; later demonstration reveals knowledge

  • Cognitive maps: mental representations of spaces (e.g., home layout, Target store layout, Six Flags) that aid navigation and task performance

• observational learning and social learning theory (Bandura)

  • Observational learning: learn by watching others and then imitate

  • Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura): we learn what to do and what not to do by observing models

  • Bobo doll experiments (Bandura, 1960s): children exposed to adults displaying aggressive behavior toward a Bobo doll tended to imitate the aggression; gender differences observed (boys more likely to imitate aggression; same-sex model influence stronger; both boys and girls influenced by same-sex models)

  • Models can be observed in person or via films; learning includes both actions to imitate and warnings about what not to do

  • Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment:

  • Vicarious reinforcement: observing someone else being reinforced increases the likelihood you’ll imitate the behavior

  • Vicarious punishment: observing someone else being punished reduces the likelihood you’ll imitate the behavior

  • Generalization in social learning: behaviors learned in one context can transfer to other contexts and relationships (e.g., modeling kindness in relationships)

• application to real life and examples from the transcript

  • Dog training video by a professional trainer illustrates the four quadrants in action

  • Example sequences: using a bark collar (positive punishment); removing yourself from the dog’s jumping (negative punishment); giving a treat for sitting (positive reinforcement); leash pressure release to promote desired position (negative reinforcement)

  • Grounding a person as punishment can be framed as positive punishment or negative punishment depending on phrasing

  • Observational learning applied to parenting, education, and interpersonal relationships (e.g., praising honest behavior, shaping behaviors like cleaning up or potty training, and modeling prosocial behavior)

• liabilities and ethical considerations of punishment

  • Punishment can instill fear, erode trust, and increase aggression

  • Punitive approaches can lead to antisocial outcomes and delinquency in the long term

  • Positive reinforcement is generally the most ethical and effective approach when feasible; it supports relationship quality and long-term behavior change

• practical tips for applying operant conditioning

  • Use immediate consequences following the target behavior when possible to strengthen learning

  • Prefer positive reinforcement and shaping to build trust and autonomy

  • Be mindful of the potential side effects of punishment and use sparingly, if at all

  • Consider secondary reinforcers (praise, rewards cards, stickers) and primary reinforcers (food, rest) appropriately to the learner

  • When teaching new behaviors, use shaping gradually toward the ultimate goal; look for the nearest approximations to reinforce

  • In humans, note that shaping can feel like manipulation; be transparent, ethical, and aimed at mutual benefit

• example connections to broader topics

  • Reinforcement schedules in education or parenting: avoid over-reliance on constant rewards to prevent satiation; incorporate intermittent reinforcement to maintain motivation

  • Latent learning and cognitive maps explain how people learn environments (stores, routes) and why prior exposure improves later performance

  • Observational learning underlies media effects: violence in entertainment can influence real-world attitudes and behaviors via modeling, vicarious reinforcement, and desensitization; ongoing debate exists about the magnitude and conditions of these effects

• quick recap of key terms

  • Operant conditioning: consequence-based learning

  • Positive reinforcement, Negative reinforcement, Positive punishment, Negative punishment

  • Primary reinforcers, Secondary reinforcers

  • Continuous reinforcement, Partial reinforcement (FI, FR, Intermittent)

  • Shaping, Latent learning, Cognitive maps

  • Observational learning, Social Learning Theory, Bobo doll experiment

  • Vicarious reinforcement, Vicarious punishment

  • Latent learning: learning that is not immediately observable

  • Cognitive maps: mental representations of environments

• note on exam context from transcript

  • Expect scenario-based questions: identify whether a given situation reflects positive/negative reinforcement/punishment, or other quadrants; focus on the immediacy of consequences and whether something is added or removed

  • Chapters referenced: study notes cover material related to operant conditioning (and related learning concepts) for exam preparation

• conceptual takeaway

  • Positive reinforcement is typically the most effective and relationship-building approach

  • If using punishment, be mindful of potential negative consequences and use only as a last resort

  • Shaping and observational learning show how complex behaviors can be built from simple actions through gradual reinforcement and modeling

• connections to real-world relevance

  • Parenting, education, animal training, coaching, and workplace management all leverage these principles to shape behaviors, encourage skills, and build healthy relationships

  • Understanding reinforcement schedules helps design effective motivation strategies in classrooms and homes

  • Awareness of media influence prompts critical thinking about exposure to violence and aggressive behavior in entertainment

• closing reminder

  • Open-book policy isn't in effect for the exam; study chapters 1, 2, 4, and 6, along with handouts and PowerPoints; final project topics may include discussion of violence in media and aggression; review the Canvas files for complete materials