Rhetorical Terms AP Lang

1. CONCRETE / ABSTRACT

Particular nouns can be put into two categories: CONCRETE or ABSTRACT.

CONCRETE nouns are nouns that have physical, tangible properties: Fence, Desk, Chair, Bench etc. 

ABSTRACT NOUNS 

 ABSTRACT nouns are nouns that are conceptual. They are ideas. They have no physical properties to measure: Love, Truth, Beauty, Evil, etc. 

 “When I despair, I remember that all through history the way of truth and love have always won. There have been tyrants and murderers, and for a time, they can seem invincible, but in the end, they always fall. Think of it--always.” 

RHETORIC 

The technique of using language effectively and persuasively in speaking or writing. 

“The faculty of finding the available means of persuasion in a given case.” – Aristotle

“The art of featuring content.” – Joliffe & Covino

This year, in every text we read, we should always be looking for the rhetorical situation, that is, what is the SUBJECT, who is the SPEAKER, and who is the AUDIENCE? 

VOICE 

This is a unique “personality” of text. 

Often, a writer’s word choices and style will combine to form what is known as VOICE. 

You can often characterize voice as a “peek” of the writer’s personality coming through the words off the page. 

For instance, if I can read a paper blind and determine the writer based purely on the words on the page, that could mean the writer has a strong voice. 

THESIS 

A statement in a work that a writer intends to support or prove. 

A thesis or claim should specify the point being argued and should provide a warrant which should identify a universal truth of how the world works to justify the claim. 

EXTENDED METAPHOR 

A figure of speech that makes an implicit, implied, or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. 

 My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)

 The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)

 It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat and life is going to be without hardships)

An EXTENDED METAPHOR is one that continues throughout a series of sentences in a paragraph, longer piece, or lines in a poem. 

CONNOTATION / DENOTATION 

Words have strict dictionary definitions as well as subtle degrees of meaning. The strict definition is called DENOTATION. 

For instance, the DENOTATION of “cheap” is “at or for a low price.” 

However, a friend may be offended if you call something that they bought “cheap” as opposed to “inexpensive.” Those two words, with the same dictionary definition, have different CONNOTATIONS. 

“Affordable” might be even more palatable. Can you think of any others with more negative or positive CONNOTATIONS? 

CONFLICT 

A struggle between two opposing forces in text. 

The result of competing desires or the presence of obstacles that need to be overcome. 

Conflict is necessary to propel a story forward. The absence of conflict amounts to the absence of story. 

PROPAGANDA 

The spreading of rumors, false or correct information, or an idea in order to influence the opinion of society. 

Many memes that you see on the Internet, especially political ones, are forms of propaganda.

In terms of Ethos, Logos, Pathos, any information that is purely Pathos without the other two elements, can be considered PROPAGANDA. 

ARISTOTLEIAN TRIANGLE 

A term that emblemizes Aristotle’s idea that all communication is essentially trilateral, with relationships between the speaker, the subject, and the audience. 

This will also embody ETHOS, PATHOS, & LOGOS. 

Can also be called the Rhetorical Situation

AUDIENCE 

One of the three elements of the Aristotleian Triangle (rhetorical triangle) along with subject and speaker. 

When writing or delivering a speech, the speaker / writer must consider the audience in order to be effective. 

Many choices in writing will and should be influenced by the make up of the audience. 

The audience is closely connected with PATHOS. 

SPEAKER 

This is one third of the Rhetorical Triangle. It is also, in literature and poetry, the created voice of the narration. 

In rhetoric, this is the person delivering a speech or writing a persuasive text. 

The speaker is closely related with ETHOS. 

He or she must appeal to an audience and must be well versed in his or her subject. 

ANALOGY 

A comparison in which an idea or thing is compared to another thing that is quite different from it. It aims to explain the idea by comparing it to something that is more familiar to the audience / reader. 

METAPHORS and SIMILES are often used in analogies. 

For instance, “The structure of an atom is like a solar system. The nucleus is the sun and electrons are the planets revolving around the sun.” 

POINT OF VIEW 

The mode of narration an author uses to let the readers “hear” and “see” what takes place in a story, poem, etc. 

•1^st Person – “I” / 1^st Person Plural – “We”

•2^nd Person – “You”

•3^rd Person – “He” or “She”  / 3^rd Person Plural – “They”

Pay close to attention to the choice of point of view in order to determine how much we can be expected to know or how close we as readers are to the action. 

ANECDOTE 

A short and interesting story or an amusing event often proposed to support or demonstrate some point. They are often intended to make readers and listeners laugh.

For instance, there are some comedians who tell jokes, that is, a premise and then a punch line, or often a one-liner with both a premise and punch line in one, but other comedians tell anecdotes, such as Marc Maron, Tig Notaro, John Mulaney, etc.

MOOD / ATMOSPHERE 

An element of text that evokes certain feelings or vibes in readers through words and descriptions. 

Mood is NOT synonymous with Tone. Tone can work alongside setting, theme, diction, and syntax to create MOOD. 

Whereas Tone is the author’s feelings in the work, MOOD is how we as readers or audience feel as an effect of the text. 

PERSONA 

A voice or assumed role of a speaker through which the writer wants his or her words to be presented. 

Poets will often create a persona through which to convey a poem. 

Think of persona and the writer in the same way that an actor is not the same as the role. 

Writers will choose a persona in order to provide distance from the topic, or even to provide more emphasis to the message. 

ALLEGORY 

A figure of speech in which abstract ideas or principles are described in terms of characters, figures, and events.

Most of you read Animal Farm, which is George Orwell’s allegory of the different sections of Russian society. 

By making these historical figures animals, he is able to make his stance on the Russian Revolution clearer to audiences. 

AMBIGUITY 

A word, phrase, or statement that has more than one meaning or interpretation.

There are two types of ambiguity: rhetorical and grammatical. 

Rhetorical: “I haven’t slept for ten days, because that would be too long” 

Grammatical: “Harry isn’t coming to the party. Tell Joe we’ll see him next week.” 

In your writing, you should try to avoid grammatical ambiguity at all times and should only use rhetorical ambiguity for a specific purpose, such as humor or drama. 

PROSE 

PROSE is the type of writing that is closest to everyday speech patterns and language. 

In other words, it is any type of writing that we read every day in newspapers, textbooks, novels, etc.

The other style of writing is poetry, so PROSE essentially lacks specific rhythmic structure. 

Poetry involves a choice as to where to end a line. PROSE flows from one margin to the other and forms paragraphs. 

AD HOMINEM 

This is Latin for “against the man.” 

When an argument attacks the opponent rather than his or her argument, this is considered an “ad hominem” argument. 

For instance, you’ll see a lot of “ad hominem” arguments during political campaigns. As one example, rather than responding to the substance of arguments, Donald Trump would often just call his opponents “losers” and “low-lifes” 

POLEMIC 

A strong verbal or written attack on someone or something. 

For instance, while some might call the films of Michael Moore insightful looks into important current issues, others would call them polemics against these issues, such as gun control, capitalism, and healthcare. 

ALLUSION 

A brief or indirect reference to a person, place, thing, or idea of historical, cultural, literary, or personal significance. The writer does not spend time explaining the reference, but rather he or she expects that readers will simply know it. 

For instance, I read James Joyce’s book Ulysses this summer, and he makes many allusions to Hamlet including the following:

•“For this relief much thanks” 

Joyce’s readers are expected to know that this is a line from the Shakespeare play. 

ARCHETYPE 

A typical character, action or situation that seems to represent universal patterns of human nature. 

For example, one archetype is “The Mentor.” Some examples of Mentors include Gandalf, Obi-Wan Kenobi, Yoda, etc. 

PARADOX 

A PARADOX is a statement that appears to be self-contradictory but may include a latent truth. It is often used to make the reader think of an idea in an unexpected way.

•“What a pity that youth must be wasted on the young.”

•“I can resist anything but temptation.” 

•“I must be cruel to be kind.”

•“To prepare for peace, we must prepare for war.”

HYPERBOLE 

An exaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis. 

We tend to use HYPERBOLE without really thinking about it. 

•“This is the WORST day EVER.”

•“I have a MILLION things to do.” 

EXPOSITION 

A literary device used to introduce background information about events, characters, or setting to the audience. 

The beginnings of all fairy tales start with exposition that can sometimes begin, “Once upon a time…”

In film and television, you can usually spot exposition as characters will often have to explain the scenario to another character and it can often be done badly.  

JUXTAPOSITION 

A literary technique in which two or more words, ideas, places, characters, or actions are placed side by side for the purpose of comparing and contrasting. 

The opening of Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities features a good example of juxtaposition:

•“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness…” 

SYNECDOCHE 

A literary device in which a part of something represents the whole. 

For instance, when someone says, “Who’s got wheels?” when they mean car is an example of synecdoche. 

Saying “boots on the ground” means soldiers, not just the boots alone. 

MOTIF 

An object or idea that repeats itself throughout a literary work. 

Motif is different than theme in that, in a literary piece, a motif is a recurrent image, idea or a symbol that, in a pattern, develops or explains a theme while a theme is a central idea or message.

Motif is different than symbols in that symbols are images, ideas, sounds or words that represent something else and help to understand an idea or a thing. Motifs, on the other hand, are images, ideas, sounds or words that help to explain the central idea of a literary work i.e. theme. Moreover, a symbol may appear once or twice in a literary work, whereas a motif is a recurring element.

OXYMORON 

A figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an effect. The common oxymoron phrase is a combination of an adjective proceeded by a noun with contrasting meanings, e.g. “cruel kindness” or “living death”.

•Open secret

•Tragic comedy

•Seriously funny

•Awfully pretty

•Foolish wisdom

•Original copies

•Liquid gas

ONOMATOPOEIA 

A word that imitates the natural sound of a thing. 

For example, the word “whisper” can be considered an onomatopoeia as the soft sound of the word mimics the sound of the action itself. 

TROPE 

A trope is any word used in a figurative sense (i.e., a figure of speech) or a reoccurring theme or device in a work of literature. The first definition of trope can refer to numerous types of figures of speech. The second definition of trope can be slightly derogatory in that a reoccurring theme in a certain genre can become cliché, and thus stale and overused. In this sense, a trope is similar to a convention of a genre, such as the common theme of a “dark lord” in the genre of fantasy or the appearance of a literal ticking bomb in an action or adventure story.

CONCEIT 

A figure of speech in which two vastly different objects are likened together with the help of similes or metaphors.

Conceit develops a comparison which is exceedingly unlikely but is, nonetheless, intellectually imaginative.

Conceit examples have a surprising or shocking effect on the readers because they are novel comparisons unlike the conventional comparisons made in most similes and metaphors.

INVECTIVE 

The term invective denotes speech or writing that attacks, insults, or denounces a person, topic, or institution. It involves the use of abusive and negative use of language. The tool of invective is generally employed in both poetry and prose to reiterate the significance of the deeply felt emotions of the writer.

Rhetorical Device - SARCASM 

Generally, the literal meaning is different than what the speaker intends to say through sarcasm. Sarcasm is a literary and rhetorical device that is meant to mock with often satirical or ironic remarks with a purpose to amuse and hurt someone or some section of society simultaneously.

The difference between sarcasm and verbal irony is the malicious intent. 

SATIRE 

A technique employed by writers to expose and criticize foolishness and corruption of an individual or society by using humor, exaggeration, irony, or ridicule. 

The aim of satire is to make improvements in society by exposing its foibles and flaws.

The Daily Show is a current example of satire. So is The Onion. 

EUPHEMISM 

The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant.

Euphemism is an idiomatic expression that loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees.

PARODY 

Parody is an imitation of a particular writer, artist or a genre, exaggerating it deliberately to produce a comic effect. The humorous effect in parody is achieved by imitating and overstressing noticeable features of a famous piece of literature, as in caricatures, where certain peculiarities of a person are highlighted to achieve a humorous effect.

In order for parody to be effective, the audience must be familiar with the subject being parodied. 

DRAMATIC IRONY 

In this form of irony, the characters within a story (novel, play, etc.) are unaware of a situation, but the audience is aware. 

•

For instance, we know the details of the situation at the end of Romeo & Juliet, yet the title characters are not, and thus make tragic decisions. 

SITUATIONAL IRONY 

It is generally when something happens to someone that is contradictory to expectations. This type of irony occurs when, for instance, someone is laughing at the misfortune of another, but then that same misfortune happens to him. 

One example is a plain clothes policeman getting pulled over and receiving a ticket. 

(We would expect that a policeman would drive safely). 

VERBAL IRONY 

This is an irony in which what is said is the opposite of what one means. This is often employed as sarcasm.

For example, saying “Great weather we’re having” during a blizzard.

The difference between sarcasm and verbal irony is intent to harm. Sarcasm is meant to hurt feelings. Verbal irony is just the opposite of what is actually meant.

For instance, if you say, “Boy, I’m sure looking forward to failing my grammar test tomorrow!” that is verbal irony. 

Sarcasm is when you tell a friend who might have said something obvious, “Nice observation, Sherlock!”

STEREOTYPE 

A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing.

REGIONALISM 

A linguistic feature peculiar to a particular region and not part of the standard language of a country.

In order to fully capture and convey the feeling of a particular setting and culture, writers will often have prose and dialogue that uses regionalisms. 

William Faulkner is one such example, capturing the accents, grammar, syntax, and diction of Mississippi. 

HAMARTIA 

Hamartia is a personal error in a protagonist’s personality that brings about his downfall in a tragedy. This defect in a hero’s personality is also known as a “tragic flaw.”

“Oedipus” in a famous Greek Tragedy is a perfect example of hamartia i.e. his downfall is cause by unintentional wrongdoings. His “hubris” makes him try to defy the prophecy of gods but he ends up doing what he feared the most.

ASYNDETON 

Asyndeton is a stylistic device used in literature and poetry to intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases and in the sentence yet maintain the grammatical accuracy. This literary tool helps in reducing the indirect meaning of the phrase and presents it in a concise form. 

“Consciousness of place came ebbing back to him slowly over a vast tract of time unlit, unfelt, unlived…..”

POLYSYNDETON 

Polysyndeton refers to the process of using conjunctions or connecting words frequently in a sentence, placed very close to one another. Opposed to the usual norm of using them sparsely, only where they are technically needed. The use of polysyndeton is primarily for adding dramatic effect as they have a strong rhetorical presence. (Mostly “and” / “or”)

Example: Saying “here and there and everywhere”, instead of simply saying “here, there and everywhere”.

•Snap and crackle and pop.

•Reading and writing and arithmetic.

•Parsley and Sage and Rosemary and Thyme 

APOSTROPHE 

A rhetorical device in which a writer or a speaker detaches himself from the reality and addresses an imaginary character in his speech.

•“Oh! Stars and clouds and winds, ye are all about to mock me; if ye really pity me, crush sensation and memory; let me become as nought; but if not, depart, depart, and leave me in darkness.”

PARABLE 

Parable is a figure of speech, which presents a short story typically with a moral lesson at the end. You often have heard stories from your elders such as “The Boy Who Cried Wolf”. This is a parable, because it teaches you a certain moral lesson. Parable is, in fact, a Greek word, parable, which means comparison. It is like a succinct narrative, or a universal truth that uses symbolism, simile, and metaphor, to demonstrate the moral lesson intended to be taught. 

RHETORICAL QUESTION 

A rhetorical question is asked just for effect or to lay emphasis on some point discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question may have an obvious answer but the questioner asks rhetorical questions to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used for style as an impressive persuasive device.

•Shylock: “If you prick us, do we not bleed?

If you tickle us, do we not laugh?

If you poison us, do we not die?

And if you wrong us, shall we not revenge?”

IN MEDIAS RES 

( Latin: “in the midst of things”) the practice of beginning an epic or other narrative by plunging into a crucial situation that is part of a related chain of events; the situation is an extension of previous events and will be developed in later action. The narrative then goes directly forward, and exposition of earlier events is supplied by flashbacks.

Examples of in medias res include Homer’s The Odyssey and the film The Usual Suspects. 

EXPLETIVE 

•Expletive is a grammatical construction that starts with the words like “it, here and there”, etc. This rhetorical device usually interrupts the normal speech and lays emphasis on the words. It originates from Latin word explere that means to fill, which plays a syntactic role, but does not contribute to the meanings of a sentence or line, and also known as empty words such as in this sentence, “There are some guests waiting for you,” in which there are is expletive phrase.

JARGON 

Jargon is a literary term that is defined as a use of specific phrases and words by writers in a particular situation, profession or trade. These specialized terms are used to convey hidden meanings accepted and understood in that field. 

For instance, if you are not a doctor, a lawyer, or a businessperson, you may be confused and lost when reading medical jargon, legal jargon, or business jargon respectively. 

EPIGRAPH 

An epigraph is a literary device in the form of a poem, quotation or sentence usually placed at the beginning of a document or a simple piece having a few sentences, but which belongs to another writer.

There is an epigraph from John Ransom’s Andersonville Diary at the beginning of The Things They Carried, which emphasizes that the nature of war and its participants has not changed in nearly 100 years. 

EPITAPH 

Epitaph is an inscription written on a grave. Generally, it is a brief composition, having figurative sense in a verse or in prose form, written to pay tribute to a deceased person, or to remember a past event. Strictly speaking, epitaph is a short text on a plaque or tombstone, honoring a dead person. It is derived from a Greek word epitaphios that means funeral oration. Many poets and authors have written their epitaphs prior to their death, such as William Shakespeare, Sylvia Plath and Oscar Wilde and John Keats.

INVERSION 

A literary technique in which the normal order of words is reversed in order to achieve a particular effect of emphasis or meter.

Inversion is achieved by doing the following:

•Placing an adjective after the noun it qualifies e.g. the soldier strong

•Placing a verb before its subject e.g. shouts the policeman

•Placing a noun before its preposition e.g. worlds between

“Had we but world enough, and time.” 

EXPLICATION 

Explication is the process of making something clearer. When you carefully explain your performance art piece to your mystified parents, you can describe what you're doing as an explication. The noun explication is closely related to "explicit," which essentially means "crystal clear."

OVERSIMPLIFICATION 

An explanation that excludes important information for the sake of brevity, or of making the explanation or presentation easy to understand.

To simplify to such an extent as to bring about distortion, misunderstanding, or error

GENERALIZATION 

A general statement or concept obtained by inference from specific cases.

UNDERSTATEMENT 

An understatement is a figure of speech employed by writers or speakers to intentionally make a situation seem less important than it really is.

•

“It was O.K.” is an understatement if someone who got the highest score in a test said this when asked about his result.

ZEUGMA 

A figure of speech in which a word, usually a verb or an adjective, applies to more than one noun, blending together grammatically and logically different ideas.

For instance, in a sentence “John lost his coat and his temper”, the verb “lost” applies to both noun “coat” and “temper”. Losing a coat and losing temper are logically and grammatically different ideas that are brought together in the above-mentioned sentence. Zeugma, when used skillfully, produces a unique artistic effect making the literary works more interesting and effective as it serves to adorn expressions, and to add emphasis to ideas in impressive style.

ISOCOLON 

•Isocolon is a rhetorical device that involves a succession of sentences, phrases and clauses of grammatically equal length. In this figure of speech, a sentence has a parallel structure that is made up of words, clauses or phrases of equal length, sound, meter and rhythm. Isocolon is the repetition of similar grammatical forms.

•Examples of isocolon may fall under any of the following types:   

•Bicolon – Bicolon has two grammatically equal structures. An example for this is Harley Davidson’s slogan “American by Birth. Rebel by Choice.”

•Tricolon – If there are three grammatically equal structures, it is called a tricolon. Such as: “That government of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the earth.” (Abraham Lincoln)

•Tetracolon – “I’ll give my jewels for a set of beads, /My gorgeous palace for a hermitage, /My gay apparel for an almsman’s gown, /My figured goblets for a dish of wood…” (Richard II by William Shakespeare). This is an example of tetra colon, where four parallel grammatical structures are written in succession. Tetracolon is also known as quatrains.

ANADIPLOSIS 

•The term anadiplosis is a Greek word which means “to reduplicate”. It refers to the repetition of a word or words in successive clauses in such a way that the second clause starts with the same word which marks the end of the previous clause.

•Anadiplosis exhibits a typical pattern of repeating a word. For example, the repetition of the word “give” in the sentence “When I give, I give myself.” is termed anadiplosis as it occurs at the end of the first clause and marks the beginning of the following clause.

•Similarly, notice how the use of anadiplosis repeats in its typical fashion the word “reliability” to highlight the main point of the sentence “This public school has a record of extraordinary reliability, a reliability that every other school is jealous of in the city.”

CHIASMUS 

•Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect.

•

•“Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You.”

ANTIMETABOLE 

•Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means “turning about”. It is a literary term or device that involves repeating a phrase in exact reverse order.

•Similar to CHIASMUS, but in CHIASMUS one doesn’t necessarily have to reverse the exact order of the words, just the general meaning.

•So, all examples of ANTIMETABOLE can also be called CHIASMUS, but all examples of CHIASMUS cannot necessarily be called ANTIMETABOLE.

METONYMY 

A figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature and in everyday life.

•Unlike synecdoche in that synecdoche uses something that is a PART of the whole. Metonymy uses something merely associated.

•“The pen is mightier than the sword.” 

•“Pen” stands for writing. “Sword” stands for military strength. 

STRAW MAN 

•A common form of argument and is an informal fallacy based on giving the impression of refuting an opponent's argument, while actually refuting an argument that was not advanced by that opponent.

•The so-called typical "attacking a straw man" argument creates the illusion of having completely refuted or defeated an opponent's proposition by covertly replacing it with a different proposition (i.e. "stand up a straw man") and then to refute or defeat that false argument ("knock down a straw man") instead of the original proposition.

ANTITHESIS 

•Antithesis, literal meaning opposite, is a rhetorical device in which two opposite ideas are put together in a sentence to achieve a contrasting effect.

•Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing.

•Speech is silver, but silence is gold.

•Patience is bitter, but it has a sweet fruit.

•Money is the root of all evils: poverty is the fruit of all goodness.

•You are easy on the eyes, but hard on the heart.

EULOGY 

•The term eulogy originates from a Greek word eulogia, which means to praise somebody or something. A eulogy is a literary device that is a laudatory expression in a speech, or a written tribute to a person deceased recently. We can say, it is a commendation or high praise intended to give honor, generally, to a dead family member, or a loved one, or it is a tribute given to a dead person at his/her funeral. Eulogies are also paid as tributes to living persons; for instance, one can dedicate it to his retired colleagues, bosses or employees for winning respectable position and noble deeds. Hence, in general, it is a gesture of honoring somebody.

SYLLOGISM 

•Syllogism is a rhetorical device that starts an argument with a reference to something general and from this it draws conclusion about something more specific.

•Example: We start with a general argument “All men are mortal,” we know that “John is a man” so “John is mortal.” It is a deductive approach to reason and is based on deducing specific conclusions from general facts.

•We notice in the above example that Syllogism is a three-part set of statements; a major statement or premise, a minor statement or premise and a conclusion that is deduced. Therefore, “All men are mortal” is a major statement or premise which stands as a general fact. “John is a man” is minor statement or premise that is specific and “John is mortal” is the logical conclusion deduced from the two prior statements.

LITOTES 

•Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “simple”, is a figure of speech which employs an understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite expressions.

•For example, using the expression “not too bad” for “very good” is an understatement as well as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite. Similarly, saying “She is not a beauty queen,” means “She is ugly” or saying “I am not as young as I used to be” in order to avoid saying “I am old”. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of understatement that renders an ironical effect.

INFERENCE 

Inference is a literary device used commonly in literature and in daily life where logical deductions are made based on premises assumed to be true. Another definition of inference suggests that it is rational but non-logical, which means that through the observation of facts presented in a particular pattern, one ultimately sees different or new interpretations and perspectives.

BEGGING THE QUESTION 

Begging the question, sometimes known by its Latin name petitio principii (meaning assuming the initial point), is a logical fallacy in which the writer or speaker assumes the statement under examination to be true. In other words, begging the question involves using a premise to support itself.

“If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law."

ANAPHORA 

In writing or speech, the deliberate repetition of the first part of the sentence in order to achieve an artistic effect is known as Anaphora.

“We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender.”

EPISTROPHE 

Derived from a Greek word that means turning upon, which indicates the same word returns at the end of each sentence.

EPISTROPHE is a stylistic device that can be defined as the repetition of phrases or words at the end of the clauses or sentences. It is also called epiphora. EPISTROPHE examples are frequently found in literary pieces, in persuasive writing and speeches.

•“Then I’ll be all aroun’ in the dark. I’ll be ever’where – wherever you look. Wherever they’s a fight so hungry people can eat, I’ll be there. Wherever they’s a cop beatin’ up a guy, I’ll be there. . . . . An’ when our folk eat the stuff they raise an’ live in the houses they build – why, I’ll be there…..”

INDUCTION / DEDUCTION 

–Conclusions reached through reasoning. 

–An INDUCTIVE statement is derived using facts and instances which lead to the formation of a general opinion. Though all the facts upon which the conclusion is based are true, there is still a chance of the conclusion reached being false. This type of reasoning goes from specific facts to a general statement. (PROBABLE)

–Even though Sherlock Holmes claims to “deduce” the answers, he is mostly using inductive reasoning, taking clues and determining the answer through observation. 

–A DEDUCTIVE conclusion is derived using general premises or statements which lead to a logically certain result. This type of reasoning goes from generalities to a factual statement. (CERTAIN)

–This is called “top-down” logic. One begins with a premise and seeks to prove something else related based on previously “known” information. 

APOTHEOSIS 

–The highest point in the development of something; culmination or climax. 

–“The actor’s appearance as Hamlet was the apotheosis of his storied career.” 

–The elevation of someone to divine status; deification.

–“Take heart, take heart, O Bulkington! Bear thee grimly demigod! Up from the spray of thy ocean-perishing- straight up, leaps thy apotheosis.” – Moby-Dick

ANAGRAM 

–An ANAGRAM is direct word switch or word play, the result of rearranging the letters of a word or phrase to produce a new word or phrase, using all the original letters exactly once; for example, the word anagram can be rearranged into nag-a-ram.

–William Shakespeare – I am a weakish speller

–Madame Curie – radium came

–T.S. Eliot - toilets

DOUBLE ENTENDRE 

–A figure of speech or a particular way of wording that is devised to be understood in either of two ways, having a double meaning. Typically one of the meanings is obvious, given the context whereas the other may require more thought.

–“To Serve Man”

–“Moving Pictures”

DEUS EX

MACHINA 

–This is a plot device in literature (and film, etc.) whereby a seemingly unsolvable problem in a story is suddenly or abruptly resolved by an unexpected and unlikely occurrence. 

–Its function is generally to resolve an otherwise irresolvable plot situation, to surprise the audience, to bring the tale to a happy ending, or act as a comedic device. 

–Ex: The writers of Avengers: Endgame have admitted that the time travel plot device as well as the arrival of Captain Marvel in the climax of the film is bordering on a deus ex machina. 

–Ex: The eagles arriving to save Frodo and Sam in Mordor is definitely a deus ex machina. 

CATHARSIS 

–Derived from an Ancient Greek word meaning “purification” or “cleansing.” 

–Commonly refers to the purging of thoughts and emotions by expressing them. The desired result is an emotional state of renewal and restoration. 

–Writers of literature / film will often create high stakes and emotional drama in order to achieve a sense of catharsis by the end. 

–Ex: Any book or movie that has made you cry or perhaps even breathe a sigh of relief is considered catharsis. 

SPOONERISM 

–102. SPOONERISM:

–An error in speech or deliberate play on words in which corresponding consonants, vowels, or morphemes are switched (see metathesis) between two words in a phrase.

–The Frog Prince

–Runny Babbit

MONDEGREEN 

–103. MONDEGREEN:

–A mishearing or misinterpretation of a phrase as a result of near-homophony, in a way that gives it a new meaning.

–Generally, when you mishear the lyrics of songs, it can be called a MONDEGREEN:

–“Excuse me while I kiss this guy” (kiss the sky)

–“There’s a bathroom on the right” (bad moon on the rise)

–“Wet dream tomato” (where dreams are made of)

–“Blessed art thou a monk swimming” (amongst women)

ENUMERATION

–106. Enumeratio

–Figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or details, and may include a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and consequences; the listing or detailing of the parts of something.

–Example:

–"It is true that this international union is a strong, militant organization. This international union is comprised of 17 trade divisions, an executive board of 15 individuals, 13 Vice Presidents...."

EPANALEPSIS 

–Figure of emphasis in which the same word or words both begin(s) and end(s) a phrase, clause, or sentence; beginning and ending a phrase or clause with the same word or words.

–

–Example: "Nothing is worse than doing nothing."

ANTANACLASIS 

–109. Antanaclasis

–The repetition of a word or phrase whose meaning changes in the second instance.

–Example: Your argument is sound...all sound. —Benjamin Franklin 

METALEPSIS 

–Reference to something by means of another thing that is remotely related to it, either through a farfetched causal relationship, or through an implied intermediate substitution of terms. Often used for comic effect through its preposterous exaggeration. A metonymical substitution of one word for another which is itself figurative. 

–

–Example: “He is such a lead foot.”

This means, "he drives fast" but only through an implied causal chain: Lead is heavy, a heavy foot would press the accelerator, and this would cause the car to speed.

CONUNDRUM 

§Now considered a confusing or difficult problem or question, this once rhetorically meant a question asked for amusement, typically one with a pun in its answer; a twist creating humor; a riddle.

Q: Why will one never starve in the desert?

A: Because of all the sand which is there. (Say it fast).

AESTHETIC 

§Theory or set of principles governing the idea of beauty at a given time and place: the clean lines, bare surfaces, and sense of space that bespeak the machine-age aesthetic; the Cubist aesthetic.

CANON 

First, it is defined as a traditional collection of writings against which other writings are evaluated. In other words, it means a long list of works taken as authentic in the Bible written in Hebrew or even translated versions. This sense makes canon opposite to apocrypha, which means written works having anonymous authors. The Bible was considered a yardstick to evaluate a literary piece according to a certain criterion.

Secondly, students of literature use it to refer to the writings included in anthologies, or textbooks under certain genres and thus are evaluated according to the genre they are placed under. This meaning covers the entire literature generally thought as suitable for aesthetic admiration and academic use.

The third definition of the term indicates the literary writings of a particular author, which are considered by scholars and critics in general to be the genuine creations of that particular author based on some already deduced rules intended to be applied on the future pieces in the same genre. 

EPISTOLARY 

•Epistolary comes from a Greek word, epistolē, which means letter. Epistolary is a literary genre pertaining to letters, in which writers use letters, journals and diary entries in their works, or they tell their stories or deliver messages through a series of letters. Though the usual format of epistolary is letters, however, sometimes writers use other forms of documents such as newspaper clippings and diary entries. Recently, you can see electronic documents like emails, blogs, radio and recordings have come into use in writings.

•Bram Stoker’s Dracula is a good example of an epistolary novel. 

EPIPHANY 

•Derived from the Greek word “epiphaneia”, epiphany means “appearance” or “manifestation. In literary terms, an epiphany is that moment in the story where a character achieves realization, awareness or a feeling of knowledge after which events are seen through the prism of this new light in the story.

FOIL 

A character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character with the objective of highlighting the traits of the “other character.” 

In The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, Tom Buchanan is the foil of Jay Gatsby. All of the descriptions of Tom’s demeanor are in direct contrast with those of Jay so that we become more sympathetic to the main character.  

DENOUEMENT 

This is the resolution of a conflict in a narrative plot structure. It occurs at the end of a story, after the climax, and serves to resolve plot lines. 

The word comes from the French denoue, which means “to untie.” 

Ex: In Romeo & Juliet, when the Capulets and Montagues use the untimely deaths of their children to end their feud, this is a denouement. 

Particular nouns can
be

put into two
categories:
CONCRETE or
ABSTRACT.
CONCRETE nouns are
nouns that have
physical, tangible
properties: Fence,
Desk, Chair, Bench
etc.

ABSTRACT
NOUNS
ABSTRACT nouns are nouns that
are conceptual. They are ideas.
They have no physical properties
to measure: Love, Truth, Beauty,
Evil, etc.
“When I despair, I remember
that all through history the way
of truth and love have always
won. There have been tyrants
and murderers, and for a time,
they can seem invincible, but in
the end, they always fall. Think
of it--always.”

RHETORIC
The technique of using language
effectively and persuasively in
speaking or writing.
“The faculty of finding the
available means of persuasion in
a given case.” – Aristotle
“The art of featuring content.” –
Joliffe & Covino
This year, in every text we read,
we should always be looking for
the rhetorical situation, that is,
what is the SUBJECT, who is the
SPEAKER, and who is the
AUDIENCE?

VOICE
This is a unique “personality” of text.
Often, a writer’s word choices and style
will combine to form what is known as
VOICE.
You can often characterize voice as a
“peek” of the writer’s personality
coming through the words off the page.
For instance, if I can read a paper blind
and determine the writer based purely
on the words on the page, that could
mean the writer has a strong voice.

THESIS
A statement in a work
that a writer intends to
support or prove.
A thesis or claim should
specify the point being
argued and should
provide a warrant which
should identify a
universal truth of how
the world works to
justify the claim.

EXTENDED
METAPHOR
A figure of speech that makes an implicit,
implied, or hidden comparison between
two things that are unrelated but share
some common characteristics.
My brother was boiling mad. (This
implies he was too angry.)
The assignment was a breeze. (This
implies that the assignment was not
difficult.)
It is going to be clear skies from now
on. (This implies that clear skies are
not a threat and life is going to be
without hardships)
An EXTENDED METAPHOR is one that
continues throughout a series of sentences
in a paragraph, longer piece, or lines in a
poem.

CONNOTATION /
DENOTATION
Words have strict dictionary
definitions as well as subtle degrees of
meaning. The strict definition is called
DENOTATION.
For instance, the DENOTATION of
“cheap” is “at or for a low price.”
However, a friend may be offended if
you call something that they bought
“cheap” as opposed to “inexpensive.”
Those two words, with the same
dictionary definition, have different
CONNOTATIONS.
“Affordable” might be even more
palatable. Can you think of any others
with more negative or positive
CONNOTATIONS?

CONFLICT
A struggle between two
opposing forces in text.
The result of competing
desires or the presence of
obstacles that need to be
overcome.
Conflict is necessary to propel
a story forward. The absence
of conflict amounts to the
absence of story.

PROPAGANDA
The spreading of rumors, false or correct
information, or an idea in order to
influence the opinion of society.
Many memes that you see on the Internet,
especially political ones, are forms of
propaganda.
In terms of Ethos, Logos, Pathos, any
information that is purely Pathos without
the other two elements, can be
considered PROPAGANDA