Document

10 Percent Plan (1863) – Abraham Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction allowed a Southern state to be readmitted into the Union if 10% of its voters swore an oath of allegiance. This lenient approach aimed to quickly restore the Union and heal national divisions, but it faced strong opposition from Radical Republicans, who felt it was too forgiving toward former Confederates. The plan's failure led to more stringent Reconstruction policies and tensions over how to reintegrate the South.

Wade-Davis Bill (1864) – A stricter Reconstruction proposal by Radical Republicans, requiring 50% of Southern voters to take a loyalty oath before rejoining the Union, instead of Lincoln’s proposed 10%. Lincoln’s pocket veto of the bill highlighted the deep divide between his moderate approach and Congress’s harsher stance, foreshadowing later struggles over Reconstruction policies and the limits of executive power.

Black Codes – Laws enacted in the South after the Civil War to limit the freedoms of African Americans by restricting their rights to vote, own property, and work in certain professions. These laws were an attempt to maintain white dominance and a system similar to slavery. In response, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the 14th Amendment to protect Black rights, but the continued enforcement of Black Codes demonstrated the South’s resistance to Reconstruction.

Reconstruction Act of 1867 – A law that divided the South into five military districts controlled by the U.S. Army and required states to ratify the 14th Amendment and grant Black men voting rights before being readmitted to the Union. This act marked the beginning of Radical Reconstruction and temporarily increased Black political power in the South. However, it also fueled Southern resentment and led to violent backlash from white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan.

14th Amendment (1868) – This constitutional amendment granted citizenship and equal protection under the law to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S., including former slaves. It was a major step toward racial equality and provided a legal foundation for future civil rights movements. However, it faced resistance in the South, where states found ways to circumvent its protections through segregation and voter suppression laws.

15th Amendment (1870) – This amendment prohibited voting restrictions based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude, theoretically granting Black men the right to vote. However, while it was a legal milestone, Southern states soon undermined it through literacy tests, poll taxes, and intimidation tactics. These barriers effectively disenfranchised Black voters until the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

Ku Klux Klan (1866) – A white supremacist terrorist organization that used violence, lynching, and intimidation to suppress Black political participation and uphold white dominance in the South. The federal government attempted to dismantle the Klan through the Enforcement Acts, but the group continued to resurface over time. Its actions contributed to the rollback of Reconstruction-era gains for African Americans.

Compromise of 1877 – This political agreement ended Reconstruction by allowing Rutherford B. Hayes to become president in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South. This effectively abandoned Southern Black citizens to the control of white supremacist governments, leading to the rise of Jim Crow laws and racial segregation. It marked the beginning of nearly a century of systemic racial discrimination in the South.

Vertical Integration – A business strategy in which a company controls every stage of production, from raw materials to distribution, used by Andrew Carnegie in the steel industry. This approach allowed businesses to reduce costs and increase efficiency, leading to the dominance of large corporations. However, it also contributed to the rise of monopolies, limiting competition and increasing corporate power over the economy.

Horizontal Integration – A business strategy where a company eliminates competitors by monopolizing one stage of production, famously used by John D. Rockefeller to dominate the oil industry through Standard Oil. This method allowed Rockefeller to control prices and maximize profits, but it also led to public backlash and the eventual passage of anti-monopoly laws like the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890.

Trusts & Monopolies – Large business organizations that dominated entire industries by eliminating competition, often through unfair business practices such as price-fixing and exclusive contracts. While they contributed to industrial growth and economic efficiency, they also led to worker exploitation, increased income inequality, and calls for government regulation, resulting in Progressive Era reforms.

Social Darwinism – A theory that applied Darwin’s concept of "survival of the fittest" to society and business, arguing that only the strongest individuals and companies would succeed. This philosophy justified laissez-faire capitalism, opposition to government regulation, and extreme wealth inequality. It was used to defend the power of industrial tycoons and discourage welfare programs for the poor.

New Immigrants – A wave of Southern and Eastern European immigrants, including Italians, Poles, and Jews, who arrived in the U.S. in the late 19th century. These immigrants faced discrimination and harsh working conditions but contributed to the rapid urbanization and industrialization of America. Nativist groups, like the American Protective Association, opposed their arrival, leading to restrictive immigration laws such as the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882).

Jim Crow Laws – State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the South, mandating separate public facilities, schools, and transportation for Black and white citizens. These laws institutionalized racial discrimination for nearly a century, creating deep social and economic inequalities until they were overturned by the Civil Rights Movement in the mid-20th century.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – A Supreme Court ruling that upheld racial segregation under the "separate but equal" doctrine, legitimizing Jim Crow laws. This decision provided legal justification for systemic discrimination, keeping African Americans in a state of second-class citizenship. It was not overturned until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954, which declared segregation unconstitutional.