American Revolution and Early Government

I. Background

A. Revolution or Evolution

  • Definitions:

    • a. Revolution – A radical or drastic change.

    • b. Evolution – A gradual change.

  • Discussion: Which term is more applicable to the American "Revolution"?

B. Characteristics of Society

  • Patriot Elites:

    • a. Most conservatives were loyalists who fled.

    • b. Patriot elites were more concerned with society and governance.

  • American Identity:

    • The concept of a distinctly American identity begins to emerge.

  • Continental Congress 1774:

    • Called for the total abolition of the slave trade.

  • Northern States:

    • Several Northern states abolished slavery.

C. Call for Constitution

  • 1776 Continental Congress:

    • Called upon colonies to draft a New Constitution prior to declaring independence.

  • Purpose of Government:

    • Needed a framework for governance.

    • Intended to be a fundamental law enduring through time.

II. Articles of Confederation

A. Condition of Government

  • The Second Continental Congress was effectively ruling the country.

  • It had limited control over foreign policy and military operations.

  • Thirteen states operated with significant autonomy, each acting as sovereign entities.

    • Examples:

    • Coined currency.

    • Raised armies and navies.

    • Established tariff barriers.

B. Adoption of Articles of Confederation by Continental Congress (1777)

  • Purpose:

    • To demonstrate to France that a legitimate government was forming in America.

  • Unanimous Approval:

    • Required for adoption; delayed for four years until 1781 due to disputes mostly about western land.

  • Western Land Argument:

    • Land beyond the Allegheny Mountains was transferred to the central government.

C. "Articles of Confusion"

  • Framework:

    • A loose confederation of states that occasionally coordinated for joint actions, especially in foreign affairs.

D. Provisions

  1. Congress acted as the central governing authority.

  2. No executive branch existed.

  3. Judicial authority was left to the states.

  4. Congress was weak, fear-driven approach led to a unicameral structure:

    • a. Each state had one vote.

    • b. Important bills required a two-thirds vote to pass.

    • c. Congress had no power to regulate commerce, allowing states to establish their own tariffs and navigational rules.

    • d. Congress could not enforce a tax collection program:

      • 1. Each state had a tax quota.

      • 2. States rarely contributed their share, leading to only 25% collection success.

  5. Amendments required unanimous support.

  6. Congress had the ability to wage war, negotiate treaties, send diplomatic representatives, and borrow money.

E. Criticism of the Articles

  • Overall Issues:

    • A weak Congress conflicted with strong sovereign states; no executive power.

  • Specific Shortcomings:

    • a. Congress lacked authority to tax.

    • b. Inability to regulate trade.

    • c. No direct governance over individual citizens; could only advise or appeal.

    • d. Member states did not need the confederation, favoring a federal model.

F. Significance

  • Landmark in Government:

    • Established a model of loose confederation ultimately paving the way for constitutional reforms.

  • Land Ordinance of 1785:

    • Proceeds from land sales in the Old Northwest to be utilized to pay off national debt.

  • General Powers Established:

    • Included treaty-making and postal services allowing for continued unity among states.

III. Political Developments

A. Land Ordinance of 1785

  1. Land was divided into townships and then further into sections.

  2. One section was designated for education purposes.

B. Northwest Ordinance of 1787 (under Articles)

  1. Territory Steps:

    • 1st step: Temporary governance under federal authority.

    • 2nd step: When a population reached 60,000, they could be admitted by Congress as a state.

  2. Slavery Prohibition:

    • No slavery allowed in Northwest Territory.

C. Problems with Britain

  1. British troops maintained trading posts on U.S. territory (focusing on fur trade).

    • a. Justification: Stated U.S. failure to pay debts and poor treatment of loyalists.

    • b. Actual intent: Prevent American control over territories in case of attack.

D. Economic Issues

  1. Financial Distress:

    • a. Decrease in credit, increase in debt, states reluctant to contribute financially.

  2. Commercial Relations:

    • a. States imposed tariffs on goods from other states, impacting trade.

E. Shays’ Rebellion (1786)

  1. Location:

    • West Massachusetts, specifically Springfield.

  2. Causes:

    • a. Revolutionary War veterans faced foreclosure on farms, demanding earlier pensions.

  3. Actions:

    • Attempted to enforce demands like paper money issuance and lighter taxes.

  4. Significance:

    • a. Showed the inability of government to manage unrest.

    • b. Rebellion was suppressed by Massachusetts state militia.

    • c. Event led to increased calls for a stronger federal government.

IV. Philadelphia Convention (1787)

A. Purpose

  • Forum to reform or replace the Articles of Confederation.

  • Reasons for Calling Convention:

    • a. Virginia proposed a conference due to interstate disputes over commerce.

    • b. Annapolis conference showed low state participation, prompting Hamilton’s call for a full constitutional convention.

B. Delegation

  1. Key Figures (55 delegates):

    • a. George Washington as chairman.

    • b. Benjamin Franklin,

    • c. James Madison, recognized as the "Father of the Constitution."

    • d. Alexander Hamilton,

    • e. John Dickinson.

  2. Notable Absences:

    • a. Thomas Paine, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams were abroad.

    • b. Samuel Adams and John Hancock were not selected by Massachusetts.

    • c. Patrick Henry declined participation.

  3. Overall Environment:

    • a. Predominantly conservative, comprised of lawyers, bankers, merchants, and shippers.

    • b. Young average age of 42.

    • c. Nationalists focused on preserving and strengthening republicanism.

    • d. Decision made to completely create a new constitution rather than revise existing articles.

C. Provisions of Constitution

  1. Establishment of a strong federal government divided into three branches:

    • Executive (E), Legislative (L), Judicial (J).

    • Includes checks and balances as well as the separation of powers.

  2. Electoral College:

    • A compromise where electors chosen by states would indirectly elect the President.

    • Each state allocated electors equal to its number of senators + representatives.

    • If no candidate obtains a majority, election goes to the House of Representatives.

    • The Vice President would be the runner-up in the presidential voting.

  3. Executive Branch:

    • The President serves a four-year term with criteria of:

      • Must be 35 years or older.

      • Natural-born citizen.

      • Resident of the U.S. for 14 years.

    • Powers include veto authority and role as Commander-in-Chief, alongside appointment powers.

D. Acts of Compromise

  1. Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise):

    • Proposed by Roger Sherman, it established a bicameral legislature:

      • The House with representation based on population.

      • The Senate with equal representation for all states.

    • Balances between minority rights and equitable representation.

  2. Three-Fifths Compromise:

    • In the counting of populations for representation and tax purposes, every three out of five enslaved individuals would be counted, which disproportionately benefited southern states.

  3. Commercial Compromise:

    • Allowed Congress to regulate commerce, specifically:

      • Levy tariffs on imports but prohibited specific taxes on exports.

  4. Bill of Rights:

    • First ten amendments recognized to protect civil liberties and to facilitate ratification of the Constitution.

E. Federalists vs. Antifederalists

  1. Definitions:

  • Federalists:

    • Supporters of a strong national government.

    • Typically cultured and propertied individuals such as seaboard merchants and conservative loyalists.

  • Antifederalists:

    • Opponents of a stronger federal government.

    • Advocated for states' rights and distrusted the upper-class elite.

  1. Ratification Challenges:

  • The Constitution required ratification by nine states to come into effect. Rhode Island abstained from early proceedings.

  • Antifederalist Arguments include:

    • Allegations of it being anti-democratic and a construct of the elite.

    • Concerns over state sovereignty and individual freedoms absent due to the lack of a Bill of Rights.

F. Process of Ratification

  1. Ratification process meant to appeal directly to the populace rather than Congress heads.

  2. Key states that needed ratification included Massachusetts, Virginia, and New York due to their pivotal roles in the Union.

  3. The Federalist Papers:

    • Series of essays to convince New York citizens, authored by Jay, Hamilton, and Madison as commentary on the Constitution.

V. Bill of Rights

A. Implementation

  1. First ten amendments were drafted mainly by James Madison.

  2. Aimed to secure individual's civil liberties and limit the scope of federal authority.

  3. Discussions around the amendments led to the adoption of the Bill of Rights in 1791.

  4. Amendments can be proposed through:

    • a. A Constitutional Convention called by two-thirds of the states.

    • b. A two-thirds majority in both houses of Congress.

  5. Content of Amendments:

    • 1-8: Specific rights regarding civil liberties.

    • 9-10: Limits imposed on the federal government and reserved rights for the states.

B. First Congress and Judiciary Act of 1789

  1. Established federal courts.

    • a. Organized Supreme Court with a Chief Justice and five associate justices.

    • b. Set up federal district courts.

    • c. Created office of Attorney General.

VI. Hamilton's Financial Program

A. Economic Policy

  1. Goals and Controversies:

    • Program favored affluent groups, spurred on federal responsibilities.

    • Aimed to bolster national credit and manage debts effectively.

  2. Funding at Par:

    • Government assured to pay bills in full (face value + interest).

    • Over $54 million in debts, including state debts totaling $21.5 million from the Revolutionary War.

    • Offer by federal government to centralize debts improved financial trust and unity amongst states.

  3. Custom Duties:

    • Revenue raised through tariffs on imports to bolster national economy.

B. National Bank

  1. Creation and Necessity:

    • Proposed by Hamilton, sought to create a standard currency and provide government stability.

    • Bank would be a private institution with significant government stockholding.

  2. Controversial Aspects:

    • Constitutionality debated:

      • Hamilton argued it was permissible under the “necessary and proper” clause.

      • Jefferson opposed on grounds of it being unconstitutional.

  3. Creation:

    • Enacted in 1791, chartered for twenty years, basis for modern banking in the U.S.

VII. Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

A. Context

  1. Farmers in Pennsylvania revolted against the excise tax placed on whiskey.

    • Corn farmers used whiskey as a means of trade and income.

  2. Rebels protested violently, leading to civil unrest.

B. Significance and Effects

  1. The rebellion became the first real test of the new Constitution and presidency.

  2. Washington’s response, deploying militia, impressed the authority and respect of the new government.

VIII. Beginnings of Political Parties

A. Evolution

  1. The ideological rift between leaders like Jefferson and Hamilton led to party formation.

    • Not originally intended to establish permanent factions.

    • Parties began organizing around newspapers and popular support.

B. Key Issues and Influence

  1. Foreign policy was a significant aspect of divergence between parties.

  2. Hamilton’s financial policies caused factional divides that characterized early American politics.

IX. Foreign Affairs Under Washington

A. French Alliance and its Implications

  1. Background:

    • Initial alliance with France (1778) complicated by events during the French Revolution (1789).

  2. Federalists’ Stance:

    • Held conservative views, remained skeptical of getting too involved in French affairs.

  3. Jefferson’s Position:

    • Supported France, emphasized Revolutionary principles.

B. Neutrality Proclamation (1793)

  1. Declared U.S. neutrality in conflicts between foreign powers.

  2. Required U.S. citizens to remain impartial, ensuring U.S. interests were prioritized.

C. Citizen Genet Incident

  1. French minister came to the U.S. and attempted to recruit privateers, violating neutrality.

  2. Ultimately expelled due to threats against government stability.

D. Relations with Britain

  1. Britain maintained forts on U.S. territory, violating existing treaties.

  2. Impressed American sailors into the British navy, causing tensions.

  3. Jay Treaty (1795):

    • Attempt to settle disputes; provisions included payment for damaged ships, but did not resolve all issues.

E. Pinckney Treaty (1795)

  1. An agreement with Spain, guaranteed U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River and access to New Orleans.

F. Washington’s Farewell Address

  1. Warned against entangling alliances and set principles for future foreign policy decisions.

X. John Adams' Presidency (1797 - 1801)

A. Background

  1. A New Englander known for his intelligence and typically stern demeanor.

  2. Elected as the 2nd President; faced challenges succeeding Washington.

B. Undeclared War with France

  1. Causes:

    • Anti-French sentiment surfaced post-Jay Treaty.

    • French seized U.S. merchant vessels, escalating tensions.

C. XYZ Affair (1797)

  1. Adams attempted diplomacy but was met with demands for bribes from French officials (X, Y, Z).

  2. Stirred public resentment, leading to a strong defense stance.

D. Consequences and War Preparation

  1. Expansion of naval forces and preparations for conflict, despite no formal war declaration.

E. Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

  1. Investigative legislation aimed at countering perceived threats from immigrants and opposition parties.

  2. Controversial laws enhanced federal authority but raised constitutional concerns, leading to public backlash.

F. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions

  1. Formulated by Jefferson and Madison, argued for states' rights to nullify federal laws deemed unconstitutional.

  2. Sparks debate about state vs. federal authority and the limits of power.

G. Overall Legacy of Adams

  1. Political tensions emerged rooted in Federalist and Democratic-Republican lines, setting the stage for future electoral battles and debates over governance principles.