Semester 1 AP Euro Vocab Terms to Know:

disce aut discede

Latin term that means "learn or leave"

pogrom

term for periodic violent attacks on the Jewish population. They were especially prominent in Eastern Europe (Russia).

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Black Death

A bacterial disease that devastated many areas of the world. It's arrival in Europe in 1348 led to the death of millions and a profound change in society.

Bubonic Plague

a synonym for the Black Death

Constantinople

A city first established by the Roman Emperor Constantine in the 300 CE. It was the capital of the Byzantine Empire and later the Ottoman Empire.

urban

of or pertaining to cities

rural

of or pertaining to the countryside

flagellants

an extremist Catholic religious movement that believed that physical punishment of the flesh (whipping) could attone for the sins of man. They believed that the plague was a punishment from God.

ghetto

originally is referred to a specific section of a European city where Jews were allowed to reside. It was often walled off from Christian areas.

anti-semitism

the hatred of the Jewish population

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first-hand

something directly witnessed or experienced by the person relating it.

second-hand

something explained by someone who did not directly witness or experience it.

Florentine

of or pertaining to the city of Florence

Vernacular

any language spoken by the genera population of a region, as opposed to Latin, the language of the Church and education

Siege

A military tactic where an enemy is completely surrounded and starved into submission.

Balkan Peninsula

The vast region of southeastern Europe that includes nations such as Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania, and Serbia.

antiquity

Of, or pertaining to anything ancient, or to a period of ancient history.

Middle Ages

The European historical era following the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 CE and the beginning of the Renaissance (1400's).

Medieval

A synonym for the Middle Ages.

Transcribe

The action of copying by hand something written.

Literate

The ability to read.

Illiterate

Lacking the ability to read.

Secular

Anything that is not religious in its character or purpose.

Classical

Of, or pertaining to ancient Greece and/or ancient Rome.

Italian Renaissance

A distinct period in the 1400's and 1500's in which there was a renewed interest in culture, art, and learning.

papal/papacy

Of, or pertaining to the office of the Pope of the Catholic Church.

lion's share

An expression that means the biggest and best portion of something.

Doge

The title held by the man elected as ruling prince of the city of Venice.

textile

Of, or pertaining to cloth or to the production of cloth.

Medici

A powerful, wealthy family that dominated the politics of the city of Florence for much of the Renaissance.

humanism

A Renaissance intellectual movement that rejected medieval focus on religious causes for all events and looked to Greek and Roman values for inspiration. Humanists emphasized the potential and goodness of man and sought rational ways to solve human problems.

oligarchy

Any government dominated by a few wealthy people.

S'forza

A powerful, wealthy family that dominated the politics of the city of Milan.

mercenary

A soldier who fights for anyone who pays for their services.

patron

Someone who supports the arts or a specific artist.

liberal arts

Courses of study that focus on man and his accomplishments.

skepticism

The philosophical belief that certain knowledge is impossible, to doubt.

theology

study of religion

ethics

The study of moral principles and behavior.

Dark Ages

A synonym for the Middle Ages.

philiology

The study of the historical development and origin of language.

Vatican

An independent state in the heart of the city of Rome that is ruled by the Pope. It is the center of the Catholic Church's governing authority.

Donation of Constantine

A medieval document that was falsely claimed to be a Roman deed that gave the Catholic Church control over much of Western Europe.

universal truths

Values that are common to all humanity, such as honesty and kindness.

"Renaissance Man"

Term coined by Castiglione to refer to the ideal man who can do everything and do it all well.

Civic Humanism

Renaissance intellectual movement that sought to design a more ideal form of government, inspired by classical Greek and Roman models.

political science

The study of different forms of government.

Christian Humanism

Renaissance intellectual movement that focused on trying to return the Church to earlier and more authentic practice of the faith.

Flanders

An ancient name for a major region of modern Belgium.

Vulgate Bible

The ancient Latin translation of the Bible used by the medieval Catholic Church.

Northern Renaissance

Term for the spread of the Renaissance into Northern and Western Europe, especially Germany and the Netherlands. It was more focused on religious issues than was the Italian Renaissance.

Low Countries

Collective term to refer to Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.

hierarchical

A societal structure that divides people into different ranks from highest to lowest.

clergy

The formal leaders of any given religion. Examples of clergy would be priests, bishops, ministers, rabbis, and imams.

peasants

One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural free laborers.

serfs

One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural labor who are bound to the land.

artisans

A type of skilled worker who produces items by hand, such as a tailor, a shoemaker, or a potter.

guild

A medieval trade organization made up of workers from a common industry. The guild controlled the training of new members, the quality of goods produced, and pricing.

rationalize

To attempt to explain or justify an action or belief that other might find offensive.

primogeniture

The ancient law that the first born male in a family inherited all property and titles.

feminist

The movement that seeks to elevate the status and opportunities for females.

querelles de femmes

Term for the centuries long debate about the proper role for women in European society.

perspective

The artistic technique of creating three-dimensional depth on a flat surface.

contrapposto

Artistic technique of showing a human figure with the weight on a single limb.

Gothic

Architectural style associated with the late-Middle Ages and often characterized with pointed arches, flying buttresses, and the use of stained glass windows.

New Monarchs

Historical term for those rulers who came to power in the 1500's and were able to establish stronger control over their nation's than medieval kings ever could.

War of Roses

A civil war in England from 1455 - 1485 fought for control of the throne.

Tudor

The family that controlled the English throne from 1485 - 1603.

regicide

The act of killing a ruling monarch.

usurper

Term refers to someone who seizes power that does not rightfully belong to them.

dynasty

A succession of members of a single family who control or rule a nation.

Moors

A Muslim people of North African origin who conquered the Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages and ruled much of the region for centuries.

Iberian Peninsula

Term for the geographic region of southwestern Europe that includes the nations of Portugal and Spain.

Inquisition

Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities in Spain to root out anyone suspected of practicing the Jewish or Muslim religions. The courts could use torture and death to enforce their power.

centralized

The concentration of authority and control in a single person or place.

Habsburg

The family that ruled over the Holy Roman Empire, Austria, and Spain for many centuries.

Laymember

someone who is apart of a religion but does not work for the church

evangelized

The act of preaching a religious belief in hopes of winning converts.

lucrative

something that is profitable or valuable

New Monarchs

Historical term for those rulers who came to power in the 1500's and were able to establish stronger control over their nation's than medieval kings ever could.

caravel

Revolutionary Portuguese designed sailing ship capable of handling the dangers of ocean voyages. The vessels utilized three triangular sails, a rudder, and a rounded hull.

backstaff / astrolabe / sextant

Each are tools used by navigators to track speed and location using the sun, moon, stars, and the horizon.

portolani

Term for ancient, medieval maps used by early explorers in the 1300's and 1400's. They were highly inaccurate.

Cape of Good Hope

The strategic passage of water at the bottom of the African continent, marked by stormy seas caused by the meeting of the Atlantic and Indian oceans.

Malacca

An old name for the islands of Indonesia coveted for their spices and strategic location.

Treaty of Tordesillas

1494 agreement negotiated by Pope Alexander VI that split the unknown world between Spain and Portugal.

circumnavigate

The act of sailing around the world.

conquistadors

Spanish term for the soldiers who brutally conquered the New World native population in the 1500's.

Smallpox

A viral infection that caused high fever and an outbreak of painful blisters all over the body. Over 90% of the infected died.

encomienda

These were large land grants from the Spanish king to Spanish soldiers serving in the New World. They were given the right to demand labor from Native Americans living there.

Middle Passage

Term for the horrific journey of the captive African slaves across the Atlantic to the slave markets of the New World. Millions did not survive the voyages.

Mestizos

A mixed race people of European and Native American blood.

Mulattos

A mixed race people of European and African blood.

rationalize

To attempt to explain or justify an action or belief that other might find offensive.

relativism

The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context and are not absolute.

demographic

The study of people and population.

Columbian Exchange

Term for the back-and-forth, give-and-take relationship between Europe and the New World. It was marked by the movement of people, crops, and goods between both hemispheres.

bullion

Precious metals (gold and silver) in bulk form, valued by weight.

inflation

A general increase in prices and a decline in the purchasing power of the money.

Price Revolution

Term for an economic upheaval that struck Spain and then all of Europe in the 1500's and 1600's. It was marked by inflation that drove up prices.

barter

The economic system where goods are traded for other goods without the use of currency.

Global Economy

Term for the beginnings of an intertwined worldwide economy that linked the four corners of the world through the exchange of goods.

Triangle Trade

Term for the economic relationship between Europe, Africa, and the New World.

coffee houses

Businesses that emerged in European cities selling coffee, sugar, and tobacco products imported from the New World. They are good examples of the global economy.

commercial

A synonym for business.

commercial capitalism

An early form of trade that focused on the movement of goods from a place where had low value to a place where these same goods could be sold for more. It is a forerunner of free-trade.

joint-stock corporations

A business model that was based on shared risk and shared reward. Shares (a portion of ownership) were sold to investors who owned a share in the entire business.

British East Indies Company

First chartered by Queen Elizabeth I in 1600, the company came to dominate trade in South Asia (India, Sri Lanka, and Singapore) and Qing China. At its peak, it accounted for 50% of all world trade.

Dutch East Indies Company

First chartered in 1602, this company is considered the world's first multinational conglomerate. It built ships, and transported goods such as Java coffee, Taiwanese sugar, Indian tea and cotton, and South African wines.

Fuggers

A powerful and wealthy family that dominated the banking industry in Northern Europe, especially Germany.

bourgeoisie

Term referring to the urban, educated middle and upper classes.

mercantilism

The dominant economic policy of the 1500s - 1750s, it was based on the formation of self-sufficient national economies. This was achieved by limiting imports through high tariffs, the development of national industries, and the acquisition of colonies. It emphasized the amassing of bullion.

import

A good that is brought into a country from a foreign source.

tariff

A tax placed on imported goods to keep out foreign competition.

domestic

Of, or pertaining to one's own country.

free-trade

A system of economics that rejected the theory of mercantilism. The idea is to put as few barriers to trade as possible. The system rejects all tariffs.

Hanseatic League (Hansa)

An economic and military alliance of Northern European Trading cities made up of a number of Northern German coastal towns.

convents

Buildings where Catholic nuns live in common.

monstaries

Buildings where Catholic monks live in common.

Christian Humanism

Renaissance intellectual movement focused on returning the Church to authentic practice.

advocate

To argue in support of something.

clergy

Formal leaders of a religion (e.g., priests, bishops, ministers, rabbis, imams).

layman

A member of a religion who is not part of the clergy.

philology

The study of language's historical development and origin.

Low Countries

Collective term for Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.

patron

Someone who supports the arts or a specific artist.

simony

The act of buying or selling a religious office, like a bishop position.

nepotism

The practice of showing undue favoritism to family or friends in positions of power.

pluralism

The practice of Church leaders holding multiple religious offices simultaneously.

veneration

The action of showing great respect to a holy figure.

relics

Ancient items associated with holy figures.

indulgences

Actions Catholics can undertake to earn forgiveness of sins.

'Faith and Works'

Catholic teaching that salvation depends on both faith and good works.

'Faith alone, Grace alone, Scripture alone'

Luther's argument that salvation depends on faith, God's mercy, and the Bible.

excommunication

The action of denying someone participation in a religious community.

Huguenots

French Protestants who followed the teachings of John Calvin?

icon

A representation or image of a sacred figure

theocracy

A government dominated by religious leaders

iconoclastic

The action of attacking or destroying an icon

Anabaptists

So called 'radical' Protestants who only baptized adults

HRE

Holy Roman Empire or Holy Roman Emperor

Peace of Augsburg

A 1555 internal agreement in the Holy Roman Empire that allowed each state to select its religion

abdicate

The action of a monarch surrendering their claim to the throne

Bourbons

The family that held the throne of France until the French Revolution

Inquisition

Religious courts in Spain to root out suspected practitioners of Judaism or Islam

annulment

A legal procedure that cancels a marriage

sacked

A military action where a conquered city is raped, murdered, and destroyed

illegitimate

To be born to unmarried parents

Act of Supremacy

A 1534 law in England that made the king the head of the Church of England

regent

A person who holds power when a monarch is unable to rule.

Anglican Church

The Church of England, a Protestant faith.

Act of Religious Settlement

A 1559 law that made the Anglican Church the official state church of England.

Spanish Armada

A fleet of Spanish warships sent against England in 1588.

Council of Trent

A meeting of Catholic Church leaders to respond to the Protestant Reformation.

standardize

To make something uniform.

dogma

The official teachings and beliefs of a religion.

Index

A list of prohibited books for Catholics, abolished in 1966.

Jesuits

An order of Catholic priests founded by Ignatius of Loyola.

Baroque

A style of art, architecture, and music characterized by ornate details.

Mannerism

An art movement associated with the late-Renaissance period.

Defenestration of Prague

An event in 1618 that triggered the Thirty Years' War.

excommunication

The action, taken by a religious group, that denies someone the right to participate in the church community; to eject someone from a religion.

Diet of Worms

1521 heresy trial of Martin Luther. He was judged by HRE Charles V.

heresy

To hold positions that are contrary to the accepted teachings of a religious community.

Subject

A person who lives in a nation ruled by a crowned head of state (king, queen, emperor, etc.).

recant

To assert that one no longer accepts beliefs that one once supported; to take back something once proclaimed.

celibacy

The act of abstaining from marriage and sexual relations.

Scandinavia

The vast region of Northern Europe that includes the nations of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Finland.

Protestant

Any person who identifies as a Christian, but who is not a part of the Catholic or Orthodox Christian faiths.

social uprising

A revolt by a specific segment of the population against the ruling authorities.

status quo

The existing state of affairs, especially regarding religion and politics.

secular

anything that is not religious in its character or purpose

temporal

Relating to worldly as opposed to spiritual affairs; secular.

transubstantiaion

Catholic teaching that during the mass (religious service) the communion bread and wine are literally transformed into the actual body and blood of Christ.

consubstantiation

Protestant teaching that during the communion bread and wine are only symbolic representations of the actual body and blood of Christ.

predestination

The Calvinist teaching that God has already determined who is saved and who is damned, even before we are born.

elect

Calvin's term for those who God had selected for salvation.

seminaries

Schools where clergy are educated in the beliefs of a specific religion.

secular

Not religious in character or purpose

politiques

Nobles and royal figures who supported religious toleration

sovereignty

Power of a state to govern itself

absolutism

System of government where all power is in the hands of the ruler

divine-right

Power or authority bestowed by God

Bourbons

Family that held the throne of France until the French Revolution

Edict of Nantes

1598 royal decree granting religious toleration to French Protestants

reign

Period of time during which a monarch rules

duel

Formal combat between two people with weapons

Intendants

French royal governmental officials who replaced the French nobility

bureaucracy

Non-elected governmental officials who keep the state functioning

Huguenots

French Protestants who followed John Calvin

Treaty of Westphalia

1648 international agreement that ended the Thirty Years' War

standing army

Full-time, professional military force

regency

Period of government when an appointed figure rules in place of a young, ill, or incapacitated monarch

Fronde

Uprising led by French nobles against absolutism in France

L'etat c'est moi

Famous declaration by Louis XIV, meaning 'I am the state'

levy

Tax or the authority to collect a tax

aristocratic

Pertaining to the nobility

Edict of Fontainebleau

1685 royal proclamation that ended religious freedoms for French Protestants

mercantilism

Dominant economic policy based on self-sufficient national economies

tariff

Tax placed on imported goods to limit foreign competition

League of Augsburg

Alliance of nations against the growing power of Louis XIV's France

legitimate

Something that is legally based

Treaty of Utrecht

1713 agreement that ended the War of Spanish Succession

Gibraltar

Strategic region controlling the passage between the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea

bullion

Precious metals (gold and silver) in bulk form

Hohenzollern

Dynasty that ruled the German state of Prussia

militaristic

Aggressive posture that glorifies the military

Kaiser

Title held by the ruling monarch of Prussia and later Germany

General War Commissariat

Prussian political organization that directed the affairs of the nation

Junkers

Term historically referring to the nobility of Prussia

Sultan

Title held by the ruling monarch of the Ottoman Empire

Battle of Lepanto

Epic 1571 naval battle between the Ottoman Empire and Christian forces

Janissaries

Elite Ottoman military force composed of Christian-born captives

sick man of Europe

Nickname of the declining Ottoman Empire in the 1800s and early 1900s

Mongol Yoke

Brutal 300-year period of Mongol feudal rule over Russia

Tsar

Title held by the ruling monarch of Russia

autocracy

State governed by a single absolute monarch

Boyar

Term historically referring to the nobility of Russia

serfs

Rural, agricultural laborers bound to the land

Romanov

Dynasty that ruled the state of Russia

Kremlin

Massive fortress/palace complex in the heart of Moscow

St. Petersburg

City built by Peter the Great as a new capital of Russia

Sejm

Historic parliament of Poland

constitutional monarchy

Form of government with limited powers for the monarch

republic

Government without a crowned monarch as head of state

stadholder

Title held by the ruling official of a Dutch province

East Indies

Geographic region of Southeast Asia including Indonesia

stock market

Business enterprise for buying, selling, and trading stocks

merchant marine

Country's shipping involved in trade

finished goods

Products produced from raw materials, increasing their value

commercial

Synonym for business

joint-stock corporation

Business that sells shares to investors for proportional share of profits

Magna Carta

1215 document placing limits on the monarch's powers

balanced polity

Division of governmental powers between the monarch and the Parliament

Petition of Right

1628 document restricting the monarch's power

arbitrary

Something done without good reason, randomly

quartering

Forcing people to house soldiers without compensation

martial law

Military control used to preserve order

renege

To go against a previous agreement, break a promise

tyranny

Oppressive, unjust, cruel government

Eleven Years of Tyranny

Period when King Charles I ruled England without Parliament

Long Parliament

Parliament seated in 1640, hostile to King Charles I

House of Lords

Upper house of the English Parliament

House of Commons

Lower house of the English Parliament

Cavaliers

Supporters of Charles I during the English Civil War

charismatic

Possessing a compelling charm that inspires devotion

gentry

English social class of wealthy, land-owning people

Roundheads

Opponents of King Charles I in the English Civil War

New Model Army

Military force formed by opponents of the king during the English Civil War

regicide

Killing of a ruling monarch

English Commonwealth

Republic in English history after the execution of Charles I

Lord Protector

Title held by Oliver Cromwell during his leadership of the Commonwealth

Levellers

Radical English political movement advocating for voting rights for all men

universal manhood suffrage

Political term meaning all adult men have the right to vote

Rump Parliament

Radical group remaining in Parliament after the decision to execute Charles I

Glorious Revolution

Event in which King James II was removed from the throne

abdicate

Action of a monarch surrendering their claim to the throne

Act of Settlement

Law passed to ensure no Catholic could sit on the English throne

figurehead

Someone who is supposedly the leader but exercises no real authority

Social Contract Theory

Political theory that government's power is given by the people

astronomy

the branch of science that deals with the study of celestial objects, the universe, the heavens.

astrology

a pseudoscience that attempts to predict events by the study of the movement of stars and planets.

star charts

These are maps of the nighttime sky showing constellations and stars. They have been used for many centuries by navigators.

Ptolemy

A 100's CE Greek-Egyptian astronomer and cartographer who did extensive work in astronomy and supported the geocentric theory of how the universe operated. He also drew many of the most used portolani (maps).

geocentric theory

An ancient scientific theory that the earth is at the center of the universe and that all heavenly objects revolve around it.

heliocentric theory

An ancient scientific theory that the sun, not the earth is at the center of the universe and that all heavenly objects revolve around it.

elliptical

An enclosed circle that is oval in shape

telescope

A scientific tool used to enhance one's sight when observing objects in the sky.

lunar

Of, or pertaining to the moon.

solar

Of, or pertaining to the sun

Inquisition

Term for religious courts set up by Catholic authorities to root out anyone suspected of holding views that contradicted Catholic teachings. The courts could use torture and death to enforce their power.

heresy

To hold positions that are contrary to the accepted teachings of a religious community.

recant

To assert that one no longer accepts beliefs that one once supported; to take back something once proclaimed.

alchemy

A forerunner of chemistry, it was focused on the transformation of matter, especially base metals, such as lead, into gold.

Universal Laws

A belief in physics that there are scientific rules that are true everywhere and for all time. Gravity is a prime example.

gravity

A natural phenomenon in which all objects with mass and energy are drawn towards one another.

plagiarize

To take credit for the work of someone else and to pass it off as your own; to copy.

mechanistic

Theories that explain phenomena in purely physical or deterministic terms.

anatomy

The branch of science that deals with the study of the bodily structure of humans and other animals.

Galen

A 100's CE Greek physician whose ideas about anatomy and medicine dominated medical theories for over 1,000 years.

Bloodletting

The now discredited practice of withdrawing blood from a patient to treat or prevent illness or disease.

folk remedies

The use of herbs, foods, and household items to treat illnesses and disease by medical laymen. Some have shown effectiveness, others none.

circulatory system

The complex system of veins and arteries that move blood through the body.

entomology

the branch of zoology concerned with the study of insects.

metamorphosis

In insects or amphibians, the transformation from an immature form to an adult form in two or more distinct stages.

Smallpox

A viral infection that caused high fever and an outbreak of painful blisters all over the body. Over 90% of the infected died.

inoculation

A method of injecting immunities to a particular disease directly into the body.

querelles de femmes

Term for the centuries long debate about the proper role for women in European society.

midwife

Historically, a woman trained in the care of expecting mothers and in the delivery of babies.

Index

First compiled at the Council of Trent, this was a list of books that Catholics were prohibited to read. The Index was abolished in 1966.

Rationalism

The theory that opinions or actions should be based on reason and knowledge rather than on religious beliefs or emotional responses.

cogito ergo sum

Famous Latin expression credited to Descartes; it translates as "I think, therefore I am."

Empiricism

The theory that all knowledge comes from experience and evidence rather than from tradition.

Scientific Method

Radical new way of developing and confirming knowledge, developed in the 1600's and credited to Sir Francis Bacon. It involves a three-step process of hypothesis, experimentation, new hypothesis.

Scientific Societies

National scientific organizations, such as the British Royal Society and the French Academy, that bring together the leading scientists to share and collaborate.

Enlightenment

An European intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries in which ideas of God, nature, reason, and humanity were challenged and reassessed. It was predominantly associated with France.

philosophes

The French term for "philosopher," it is used to describe the leading intellects of the Enlightenment, such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.

relativism

The belief that knowledge, truth, and morality exist in relation to culture, society, or historical context and are not absolute.

"noble savage"

An Enlightenment idea, associated with Rousseau, that believed that early and primitive man was free from sin, materialistic desire, and was more happy and free than the supposedly civilized Europeans.

censorship

The suppression of any part of a book, publication, film, or work of art because of perceived offensive political, sexual, or religious content.

salon

Fashionable rooms in Parisian homes, run by elegant women, where the ideas of the Enlightenment could be debated and discussed by both genders.

separation of powers

The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government's powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and legislative.

Deism

A philosophical movement of the 18th century that believed in a Creator being (God) but rejected the Christian/Jewish/Muslim concept of a redeemer God.

Enlightened Absolutism

Voltaire's political idea that the ideal form of government was one where the monarch possessed all power, but used it wisely for the benefit of their subjects. Many monarchs considered themselves to be examples of such a ruler.

anti-clerical

To be opposed to the power of religious authorities

natural state

Rousseau argued that people who lived in a morally neutral, simple state in harmony with the natural world around him was happier than Europeans. He was inspired by the example of Native American and South Pacific cultures.

general will

A political philosophy associated with Rousseau that argued that people share a common goal for personal and communal happiness and progress.

physiocrats

17th and 18th century philosophers who dedicated their studies to economics. Adam Smith was the best example of this.

popular sovereignty

The political idea that power comes from the people, not God, and that it remains with the people

separation of powers

The political concept, advocated by Montesquieu, where government's powers are divided into different branches, such as executive and legislative.

American Revolution

The first successful revolt by a colony against rule by a European mother country. The 13 British colonies revolted against foreign rule. It ended in an American victory and the establishment of the first federal republic in history.

French and Indian War (1754 - 1763)

This was the North American theater (region) of the European conflict called the Seven Years' War. It was fought between Britain and its American colonies against France and its French colonies in North America. Most Native Americans fought for the French side in the conflict. It ended in a major british victory.

Declaration of Independence

One of the most important political documents ever written, it was inspired by the social contract theory of Locke and was written by Thomas Jefferson. It lays out the reasons for the American rejection of British rule.

First Estate

Pre-Revolutionary term for the Catholic clergy of France.

Second Estate

Pre-Revolutionary term for the nobility of France.

Third Estate

Pre-Revolutionary term for the masses of French society prior to the Revolution. It included peasants, bourgeoisie, and the urban poor.

peasants

One of the lower classes, they are rural, agricultural free laborers.

sans-culottes

This was a slang term that referred to the urban working poor.

bourgeoisie

Term referring to the urban, educated middle and upper classes.

taille

A hated tax paid only by the common people of France, not by the clergy or the nobility.

Estates-General

The historic parliament of France, it was a body that the French king could consult at will. It lacked the same type of powers that the British Parliament possessed.

cahiers de doleances

These were lists of grievances drawn up by each of the three estates; they were reform suggestions and included demands such as fair taxation and equal voting rights.

National Assembly

The delegates of the Third Estate declared the end of the Estates-General and the formation of this as the new parliament of France. It was dominated by the bourgeoisie.

Tennis Court Oath

On June 20, 1789 the King ordered that the National Assembly be locked out of their meeting room. The delegates regrouped at Versailles and swore this oath not to disband until they had written a constitution for France.

militias

A military force that is made up of civilians rather than soldiers, usually put together in times of emergency.

Bastille

A large fortress in the heart of Paris that served as a hated prison. On July 14, 1789 a Paris mob stormed it in search of weapons. The mob killed several soldiers. This is a major event of the Revolution.

Great Fear

In the summer of 1789 a panic swept across France that the nobility was going to crush the new Revolution. Angry peasant mobs attacked the estates of the nobles and burned many to the ground.

manorial obligations

These were ancient requirements that peasants needed to work several days each month on the lands of the nobility.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Written by delegates of the National Assembly during the summer of 1789, this is the first constitution of France. It promised equal rights for all French men.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

This is considered to be one of the first mistakes of the Revolution. This law required all French Catholic clergy to swear an oath of loyalty to the nation over the Church. It turned the Church into an enemy of the Revolution

metric system

The most common system of measurement used in the world. It uses the meter, liter, and gram as units of measure. It was first adopted by France during the Revolution.

"Liberty, Equality, Fraternity"

This became the famous three-word motto of the Revolution; it sums up the ideals of the Revolution.

Women's March

On October 5, 1789 thousands of Parisian poor women marched to Versailles to demand that King Louis XVI do something to lower the price of bread. It grew violent. The women forced the King and his family to leave Versailles and return to Paris.

Haitian Revolution

This was the first successful slave revolt against European rule to occur. It began in 1791 when Black slaves overwhelmed the French planters in the Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue. The slave rebels established the first Black ruled republic in world history and successfully defended their independence against Napoleon's attempt to reestablish French control.

inflation

A general increase in prices and a decline in the purchasing power of the money.

emigres

French term for those French nobles who fled from revolutionary France and went to other European nations. Many helped the foreign powers against France.

Declaration of Pillnitz

A 1792 agreement between Austria and Prussia pledging to work together to crush the Revolution and to restore the old order in France.

Legislative Assembly

Assembly in October 1791. It was dominated by younger bourgeoisie who favored more radical reforms.

Jacobins

The most important political group to appear in the early Revolution. They were the most radical and violent faction in the National Convention. They ran the nation during the Reign of Terror.

Girondin

These were a moderate faction of the Jacobins who supported the Revolution but opposed extremism, such as the execution of the King.

Mountain

They were the most radical faction of the Jacobins. The dominated France during the Reign of Terror. They supported the execution of the King and declared war on Austria and Prussia.

Reign of Terror

This was the most extreme and violent phase of the Revolution. Thousands of people were arrested and executed on the guillotine as enemies of the Revolution. It ended with the execution of Robespierre in July 1794.

National Convention

A new French parliament that was elected in the fall of 1792. it governed the nation during both the Terror and the Directory.

Committee of Public Safety

A group of 12 delegates, selected by the National Convention, given dictatorial power over France during the Reign of Terror. Robespierre emerged as the leader of this.

Thermidorean Reaction

A brief, violent period during the summer of 1794 when several thousand leaders of the Terror were arrested and executed. Robespierre's execution in July 1794 began it.

Directory

A new government formed after the end of the Terror. It was made up of 5 delegates selected by the Convention. It lasted from 1794 until Napoleon seized power in November 1799.

coup d'etat

A term for the overthrow of a legitimate government by military force.

archeology

The study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of artifacts.

Rosetta Stone

An archeological wonder, this is a massive stone tablet from the second century BCE, discovered by Napoleonic troops in Egypt in 1798. It contained the same message written in three different languages (hieroglyphics, Demotic, and ancient Greek).

Consulate

The first government of Napoleon, it lasted from November 1799 until he proclaimed the Empire in May 1804. Napoleon gradually emerged as the single ruler of the nation.

Concordat with the Church

An 1801 agreement between Napoleon and the Pope that ended the hostility between the Church and France. The Church recognized Napoleon as the rightful ruler of France and Napoleon restored much of the Church's rights (bbut not lands).

irreligious

Indifferent or hostile to religion, or holding no religious beliefs at all.

Code Napoleon (aka Napoleonic Code)

Authorized by Napoleon, a panal of judges wrote a national legal code for France in 1804 that replaced old regional feudal codes. It created a rational system of modern laws that was adopted by nations all over the world.

plebiscite

A direct vote by the common people on a significant issue in which the choice is between "yes" and "no."

First (Grand) Empire

began when Napoleon proclaimed himself Emperor in May 1804 and ended with his forced abdication in April 1814. It was briefly restored during the Hundred Days of 1815.

balance-of-power

The European diplomatic goal of preventing any single nation from dominating the entire continent. Britain was especially dedicated to it.

puppet-state

A nation that is officially independent, but is in fact controlled by a different nation.

Grand Duchy of Warsaw

A Napoleonic puppet-state that lasted from 1807 - 1814. It restored a measure of Polish independence that Poland had lost after the partitions of the 1790's.

Confederation of the Rhine

A Napoleonic puppet-state that created the first unified German state since the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648. It lasted from 1806 - 1813.

Continental System

Term for Napoleon's plan to ban all European trade with Britain in hopes of bringing that nation to economic ruin. It banned the sale of goods to Britain and the import of british goods to the continent.

economic warfare

The strategy of using economic tactics, such as tariffs and embargos against rivals in hopes of causing financial collapse.

Peninsular War (1807 - 1814)

A brutal conflict that began when Napoleon's forces occupied Spain. The Spanish, with British support, began a long, guerilla war that drained French strength during the conflict.

guerilla warfare

A defensive military tactic where an inferior force utilizes tactics the defy the conventional rules of warfare such as the wearing of uniforms and the taking of prisoners.

Invasion of Russia

The disastrous June 1812 military invasion of Russia by Napoleon's Grand Armee. The Russians retreated all summer, drawing the French deep into Russia. When the winter began the French began an epic retreat.

scorched earth

A military defensive tactic where a retreating army burns all resources that an advancing enemy could possibly use, including structures, towns, and fields of crops.

Congress of Vienna

One of the most important diplomatic events in European history, the Congress went from November 1814 to June 1815. The goal of the diplomats was to restore European order after the defeat of Napoleon.

Prince Metternich

he served as the Austrian Foreign Minister and later the Chancellor (Prime Minister) during most of the first half of the 1800's. His conservative views dominated European international politics for decades after the Congress of Vienna.

restoration

The act of returning a monarch to their throne, a government to power, or the control of a previous regime.

legitimacy

Something that is legal, rightful, or appropriate.

Hundred Days

The period from March to July 1815 when Napoleon escaped from Elba and attempted to restore his control over France. It ended with his defeat at Waterloo and his capture and exile to St. Helena.

Battle of Waterloo

Decisive June 1815 battle, the last in Napoleon's career. He was defeated by Prussian and British forces led by the Duke of Wellington. Napoleon was later taken prisoner and sent to his final exile.