Computers (IB)
Computers are complex electronic devices that are made to process data in accordance with instructions.
From the early days of massive mainframes to the sophisticated, portable gadgets of today like smartphones and tablets, they have seen significant evolution. A wide range of tasks are carried out by modern computers, such as calculations, data storage, communication, and entertainment.
They primarily carry out four tasks at their core: storing data for later use, processing data, and producing results. Users can enter data using input devices such as keyboards and mouse, and the Central Processing Unit (CPU) processes the data.
The CPU manipulates data in response to software commands and algorithms by carrying out instructions that are kept in memory (RAM).
Users can view or print the processed findings on output devices like printers and displays. Hard drives and solid-state drives are examples of storage devices that store data even when a computer is shut off, allowing for long-term data storage and retrieval.
The earliest electronic computers, such as the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), were created in the middle of the 20th century to carry out complex computations.
These first devices required a great deal of electrical power and were large. The discovery of the transistor in the late 1940s sped up the development of computers, resulting in the creation of mainframes and minicomputers—smaller, more efficient computers—in the 1960s and 1970s.
Personal computers (PCs) became more popular in the 1980s, mainly because of the efforts of companies like Apple and IBM, bringing up computing to both small and individual users.
The World Wide Web turned computers into global platforms for communication and information sharing, resulting in the internet boom of the 1990s.
The future of computing technology is being shaped by the ongoing evolution of computers today due to developments in wearable technology, quantum computing, and artificial intelligence.
Often called the "brain" of the computer, the CPU interprets and carries out commands to carry out instructions from programs.
Multiple cores are included into modern CPUs that perform multiple tasks at once, improving both speed and efficiency.
For example, the excellent performance of AMD Ryzen 9 and Intel Core i9 processors in professional and gaming applications is well-known.
Data that the CPU needs to access fast is temporarily stored in RAM (Random Access Memory). It enables computers to operate several programs at once without experiencing noticeable delays.
The current RAM standard, known as DDR4 (Double Data Rate 4) offers better energy efficiency and higher data transfer rates than earlier versions.
Essential applications and data are stored in ROM (Read-Only Memory), which is similar to firmware in devices like BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). This data is stored in ROM and is not lost even when the computer is turned off.
These allow users to communicate with computers and enter data. Common input devices include touchscreens, keyboards, and mice.
Stylus pens for graphic design and speech recognition software for hands-free operation are examples of advanced input devices.
These are devices that show or generate the outcomes of processing data. Examples of these include speakers, printers, and monitors.
For gaming and multimedia applications, high-resolution monitors with features like HDR (High Dynamic Range) and adaptive sync technology improve visual clarity and responsiveness.
The two main types of storage in computers are solid state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives (HDDs).
HDDs offer large capacity at a reduced cost per GB by storing data on spinning drives using magnetic storage.
SSDs are the best option for operating systems and frequently accessed data since they use flash memory technology that offers faster data access speeds and enhanced durability.
Operating systems like Windows 11 and macOS Monterey, as well as Linux distributions like Fedora and Ubuntu, are examples of system software.
It also controls the hardware resources of computers.
Certain user demands and tasks are satisfied by application software, such as Adobe Premiere Pro, Microsoft Office, and Adobe Creative Cloud.
Operating Systems are programs that control the hardware resources of computers and offer standard services to application software.
Windows 11 supports a large variety of apps and devices and is well-known for its user-friendly interface and gaming features. With features like Universal Control that improve work across Macs and iPads, macOS Monterey integrates with Apple products in a natural approach.
These applications carry out particular functions associated with optimization and system administration.
Software for antivirus defense, such as Norton and McAfee, guards against internet dangers and malware. File compression programs and disk cleanup tools maximize storage capacity and enhance system performance.
Binary digits, or bits, which represent values as 0s and 1s, are used by computers to process data. Binary digits, or bits, are the fundamental units of all digital data. Each bit can represent one of two states: 0 or 1.
For instance, the number 7 is represented as 0111 in binary code.
To more compactly represent binary data, hexadecimal (base 16) is commonly used in computing. It makes data management and comprehension easier for programmers by using sixteen symbols (0–9 and A–F) to represent values.
For example, in hexadecimal, the binary number 1010 is represented as 'A'.
Computer text is represented by the character encoding standards Unicode and ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
ASCII represents characters in the English alphabet and other symbols using binary codes that are either 7-bit or 8-bit.
By enabling a larger range of characters from different languages and symbols worldwide, Unicode expands on ASCII and ensures cross-platform and cross-language compatibility.
Local Area Networks (LANs) use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi to link devices inside a restricted area, such as a house, workplace, or college.
Wide Area Networks (WANs) use leased lines and routers to link local area networks (LANs) over long geographic distances. With the use of wireless technology (Wi-Fi), wireless LANs (WLANs) provide flexible and mobile device connections in place of physical wires.
Data transmission across networks, including the internet, is based on the fundamental protocol suite known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).
Application-layer protocols called HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (HTTP Secure) are used to transfer web pages and secure online communication, respectively.
With cloud computing, customers can have on-demand internet access to computer resources (such servers, storage, and databases).
Businesses and individuals can benefit from scalable solutions provided by services like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform, which lessen the need for physical hardware and infrastructure maintenance.
Cybersecurity measures guard against damage, attacks, and illegal access to computer systems, networks, and data.
Data confidentiality, integrity, and availability are ensured by security measures like intrusion detection systems (IDS), firewalls, and encryption, which protect against dangers like malware, phishing, and denial-of-service (DoS) assaults.
Developers can write computer-executable instructions (code) by using programming languages.
Applications involving artificial intelligence, data analysis, and web development are conducted using high-level languages such as Python, which are renowned for their readability and simplicity.
Low-level languages, like C and C++, are utilized in embedded systems and system-level programming because they provide direct hardware control.
Algorithms are systematic processes or equations that are applied to data processing, automated reasoning, and calculations.
Common algorithms include those for organizing data (e.g., Bubble Sort, Merge Sort) and discovering specific objects in a collection (e.g., Binary Search). For complicated computing issues to be solved and performance to be maximized, efficient algorithms are essential.
An algorithm or process's flow of control is visually represented using flowcharts, which use arrows and symbols to show decision points, actions, and data flow.
Pseudocode is a high-level explanation of a computer program or algorithm that helps with program design and clarity by outlining logic before real coding using structured English and syntax similar to programming languages.
The gathering, storing, and use of personal data by governments and organizations gives rise to privacy concerns.
The goal of data protection laws such as the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the US and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe is to preserve people's right to privacy by enforcing stringent rules on how data is handled.
The rights of creators to their original creations and innovations are safeguarded by intellectual property laws.
Authors, artists, and inventors are granted exclusive rights to their creative works by copyright, whilst new ideas and innovations are protected by patents. Creative Commons licenses give authors a framework that is flexible enough to share their work with some restrictions.
The term "digital divide" describes differences in how people utilize and have access to digital technology, such as computers, the internet, and digital literacy.
In order to advance equitable chances in employment, education, and socioeconomic growth internationally, it is essential that the digital divide be overcome.
Cybercrime is the term used to describe illegal activities carried out through digital platforms, such as ransomware attacks, phishing scams, identity theft, and hacking.
To counter cyberthreats and defend people, companies, and vital infrastructure from cyberattacks, law enforcement organizations, cybersecurity experts, and international collaboration are necessary.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the imitation of human intellect in devices that are capable of tasks that normally require human intelligence, like speech recognition, visual perception, decision-making, and language translation.
Without explicit programming, computers may learn from data and gradually get better at what they do thanks to machine learning (ML) techniques.
Applications of AI include healthcare diagnostics, driverless cars, virtual assistants (like Siri and Alexa), and tailored suggestions for entertainment and e-commerce.
The term "Internet of Things" (IoT) describes a network of networked objects that are implanted with sensors, software, and connection features to gather and share data via the internet.
IoT devices span a wide range of categories, from wearable health monitoring and smart home appliances (such security cameras and thermostats) to industrial machinery and smart city infrastructure.
IoT technology improves productivity, automation, and decision-making in a number of sectors, including manufacturing, transportation, healthcare, and agriculture.
Through the use of headgear or goggles, virtual reality (VR) submerges viewers in a simulated world and offers an intense sensory experience.
Augmented Reality (AR) enhances real-time engagement with the environment by superimposing digital information and virtual objects onto the real world.
Applications for virtual reality and augmented reality include gaming and entertainment, education and training (such as surgical simulations and virtual classrooms), architectural and design visualization, and travel experiences.
Computers are complex electronic devices that are made to process data in accordance with instructions.
From the early days of massive mainframes to the sophisticated, portable gadgets of today like smartphones and tablets, they have seen significant evolution. A wide range of tasks are carried out by modern computers, such as calculations, data storage, communication, and entertainment.
They primarily carry out four tasks at their core: storing data for later use, processing data, and producing results. Users can enter data using input devices such as keyboards and mouse, and the Central Processing Unit (CPU) processes the data.
The CPU manipulates data in response to software commands and algorithms by carrying out instructions that are kept in memory (RAM).
Users can view or print the processed findings on output devices like printers and displays. Hard drives and solid-state drives are examples of storage devices that store data even when a computer is shut off, allowing for long-term data storage and retrieval.
The earliest electronic computers, such as the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), were created in the middle of the 20th century to carry out complex computations.
These first devices required a great deal of electrical power and were large. The discovery of the transistor in the late 1940s sped up the development of computers, resulting in the creation of mainframes and minicomputers—smaller, more efficient computers—in the 1960s and 1970s.
Personal computers (PCs) became more popular in the 1980s, mainly because of the efforts of companies like Apple and IBM, bringing up computing to both small and individual users.
The World Wide Web turned computers into global platforms for communication and information sharing, resulting in the internet boom of the 1990s.
The future of computing technology is being shaped by the ongoing evolution of computers today due to developments in wearable technology, quantum computing, and artificial intelligence.
Often called the "brain" of the computer, the CPU interprets and carries out commands to carry out instructions from programs.
Multiple cores are included into modern CPUs that perform multiple tasks at once, improving both speed and efficiency.
For example, the excellent performance of AMD Ryzen 9 and Intel Core i9 processors in professional and gaming applications is well-known.
Data that the CPU needs to access fast is temporarily stored in RAM (Random Access Memory). It enables computers to operate several programs at once without experiencing noticeable delays.
The current RAM standard, known as DDR4 (Double Data Rate 4) offers better energy efficiency and higher data transfer rates than earlier versions.
Essential applications and data are stored in ROM (Read-Only Memory), which is similar to firmware in devices like BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). This data is stored in ROM and is not lost even when the computer is turned off.
These allow users to communicate with computers and enter data. Common input devices include touchscreens, keyboards, and mice.
Stylus pens for graphic design and speech recognition software for hands-free operation are examples of advanced input devices.
These are devices that show or generate the outcomes of processing data. Examples of these include speakers, printers, and monitors.
For gaming and multimedia applications, high-resolution monitors with features like HDR (High Dynamic Range) and adaptive sync technology improve visual clarity and responsiveness.
The two main types of storage in computers are solid state drives (SSDs) and hard disk drives (HDDs).
HDDs offer large capacity at a reduced cost per GB by storing data on spinning drives using magnetic storage.
SSDs are the best option for operating systems and frequently accessed data since they use flash memory technology that offers faster data access speeds and enhanced durability.
Operating systems like Windows 11 and macOS Monterey, as well as Linux distributions like Fedora and Ubuntu, are examples of system software.
It also controls the hardware resources of computers.
Certain user demands and tasks are satisfied by application software, such as Adobe Premiere Pro, Microsoft Office, and Adobe Creative Cloud.
Operating Systems are programs that control the hardware resources of computers and offer standard services to application software.
Windows 11 supports a large variety of apps and devices and is well-known for its user-friendly interface and gaming features. With features like Universal Control that improve work across Macs and iPads, macOS Monterey integrates with Apple products in a natural approach.
These applications carry out particular functions associated with optimization and system administration.
Software for antivirus defense, such as Norton and McAfee, guards against internet dangers and malware. File compression programs and disk cleanup tools maximize storage capacity and enhance system performance.
Binary digits, or bits, which represent values as 0s and 1s, are used by computers to process data. Binary digits, or bits, are the fundamental units of all digital data. Each bit can represent one of two states: 0 or 1.
For instance, the number 7 is represented as 0111 in binary code.
To more compactly represent binary data, hexadecimal (base 16) is commonly used in computing. It makes data management and comprehension easier for programmers by using sixteen symbols (0–9 and A–F) to represent values.
For example, in hexadecimal, the binary number 1010 is represented as 'A'.
Computer text is represented by the character encoding standards Unicode and ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange).
ASCII represents characters in the English alphabet and other symbols using binary codes that are either 7-bit or 8-bit.
By enabling a larger range of characters from different languages and symbols worldwide, Unicode expands on ASCII and ensures cross-platform and cross-language compatibility.
Local Area Networks (LANs) use Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi to link devices inside a restricted area, such as a house, workplace, or college.
Wide Area Networks (WANs) use leased lines and routers to link local area networks (LANs) over long geographic distances. With the use of wireless technology (Wi-Fi), wireless LANs (WLANs) provide flexible and mobile device connections in place of physical wires.
Data transmission across networks, including the internet, is based on the fundamental protocol suite known as TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).
Application-layer protocols called HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (HTTP Secure) are used to transfer web pages and secure online communication, respectively.
With cloud computing, customers can have on-demand internet access to computer resources (such servers, storage, and databases).
Businesses and individuals can benefit from scalable solutions provided by services like Amazon Web Services (AWS), Microsoft Azure, and Google Cloud Platform, which lessen the need for physical hardware and infrastructure maintenance.
Cybersecurity measures guard against damage, attacks, and illegal access to computer systems, networks, and data.
Data confidentiality, integrity, and availability are ensured by security measures like intrusion detection systems (IDS), firewalls, and encryption, which protect against dangers like malware, phishing, and denial-of-service (DoS) assaults.
Developers can write computer-executable instructions (code) by using programming languages.
Applications involving artificial intelligence, data analysis, and web development are conducted using high-level languages such as Python, which are renowned for their readability and simplicity.
Low-level languages, like C and C++, are utilized in embedded systems and system-level programming because they provide direct hardware control.
Algorithms are systematic processes or equations that are applied to data processing, automated reasoning, and calculations.
Common algorithms include those for organizing data (e.g., Bubble Sort, Merge Sort) and discovering specific objects in a collection (e.g., Binary Search). For complicated computing issues to be solved and performance to be maximized, efficient algorithms are essential.
An algorithm or process's flow of control is visually represented using flowcharts, which use arrows and symbols to show decision points, actions, and data flow.
Pseudocode is a high-level explanation of a computer program or algorithm that helps with program design and clarity by outlining logic before real coding using structured English and syntax similar to programming languages.
The gathering, storing, and use of personal data by governments and organizations gives rise to privacy concerns.
The goal of data protection laws such as the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) in the US and the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in Europe is to preserve people's right to privacy by enforcing stringent rules on how data is handled.
The rights of creators to their original creations and innovations are safeguarded by intellectual property laws.
Authors, artists, and inventors are granted exclusive rights to their creative works by copyright, whilst new ideas and innovations are protected by patents. Creative Commons licenses give authors a framework that is flexible enough to share their work with some restrictions.
The term "digital divide" describes differences in how people utilize and have access to digital technology, such as computers, the internet, and digital literacy.
In order to advance equitable chances in employment, education, and socioeconomic growth internationally, it is essential that the digital divide be overcome.
Cybercrime is the term used to describe illegal activities carried out through digital platforms, such as ransomware attacks, phishing scams, identity theft, and hacking.
To counter cyberthreats and defend people, companies, and vital infrastructure from cyberattacks, law enforcement organizations, cybersecurity experts, and international collaboration are necessary.
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the imitation of human intellect in devices that are capable of tasks that normally require human intelligence, like speech recognition, visual perception, decision-making, and language translation.
Without explicit programming, computers may learn from data and gradually get better at what they do thanks to machine learning (ML) techniques.
Applications of AI include healthcare diagnostics, driverless cars, virtual assistants (like Siri and Alexa), and tailored suggestions for entertainment and e-commerce.
The term "Internet of Things" (IoT) describes a network of networked objects that are implanted with sensors, software, and connection features to gather and share data via the internet.
IoT devices span a wide range of categories, from wearable health monitoring and smart home appliances (such security cameras and thermostats) to industrial machinery and smart city infrastructure.
IoT technology improves productivity, automation, and decision-making in a number of sectors, including manufacturing, transportation, healthcare, and agriculture.
Through the use of headgear or goggles, virtual reality (VR) submerges viewers in a simulated world and offers an intense sensory experience.
Augmented Reality (AR) enhances real-time engagement with the environment by superimposing digital information and virtual objects onto the real world.
Applications for virtual reality and augmented reality include gaming and entertainment, education and training (such as surgical simulations and virtual classrooms), architectural and design visualization, and travel experiences.
